SHES2050 Group 8

THE IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

2007-11-05T05:23:00.000-08:00

At the ecosystem level, biodiversity provides the conditions and drives the processes that sustain the global economy – and our very survival as a species. The benefits and services provided by ecosystems include:

>> Generation of soils and maintenance of soil quality
The activities of microbial and animal species – including bacteria, algae, fungi, mites, millipedes and worms – condition soils, break down organic matter, and release essential nutrients to plants. These processes play a key role in the cycling of such crucial elements as nitrogen, carbon and phosphorous between the living and non-living parts of the biosphere.

>> Maintenance of air quality
Plant species purify the air and regulate the composition of the atmosphere, recycling vital oxygen and filtering harmful particles resulting from industrial activities.

>> Maintenance of water quality
Wetland ecosystems (swamps, marshes, etc.) absorb and recycle essential nutrients, treat sewage, and cleanse wastes. In estuaries, molluscs remove nutrients from the water, helping to prevent nutrient over-enrichment and its attendant problems, such as eutrophication arising from fertilizer run-off. Trees and forest soils purify water as it flows through forest ecosystems. In preventing soils from being washed away, forests also prevent the harmful siltation of rivers and reservoirs that may arise from erosion and landslides.

>> Pest control
Around 99 per cent of potential crop pests are controlled by a variety of other organisms, including insects, birds and fungi. These natural pesticides are in many ways superior to their artificial equivalents, since pests can often develop resistance to chemical controls.

>> Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
Some 130 billion metric tons of organic waste is processed every year by earth’s decomposing organisms. Many industrial wastes, including detergents, oils, acids and paper, are also detoxified and decomposed by the activities of living things. In soils, the end product of these processes – a range of simple inorganic chemicals – is returned to plants as nutrients. Higher (vascular) plants can themselves serve to remove harmful substances from groundwater.

>> Pollination and crop production
Many flowering plants rely on the activities of various animal species – bees, butterflies, bats, birds, etc. – to help them reproduce through the transportation of pollen. More than one-third of humanity’s food crops depend on this process of natural pollination. Many animal species have evolved to perform an additional function in plant reproduction through the dispersal of seeds.

>> Climate stabilization
Plant tissues and other organic materials within land and ocean ecosystems act as repositories of carbon, helping to slow the build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and thus contributing to climate stabilization. Ecosystems also exert direct influences on regional and local weather patterns. Moisture released into the atmosphere by rainforests, for example, causes regular rainstorms, limiting water loss from the region and helping to control the surface temperature. In cold climates, meanwhile, forests act as insulators and as windbreaks, helping to mitigate the impacts of freezing temperatures.

>> Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters
Forests and grasslands protect landscapes against erosion, nutrient loss, and landslides through the binding action of roots. Ecosystems bordering regularly flooding rivers (floodplain forests and wetlands) help to absorb excess water and thus reduce the damage caused by floods. Certain coastal ecosystems (salt marshes, mangrove forests, etc.) prevent the erosion of coastlines.

>> Provision of food security
Biodiversity provides the vast majority of our foodstuffs. The annual world fish catch, for example (averaging 100 million metric tons), represents humanity’s most important source of wild animal protein, with over 20 per cent of the population in Africa and Asia dependent on fish as their primary source of protein. Terrestrial animals, meanwhile, supply an array of food products: eggs, milk, meat, etc. Wild biodiversity provides a wide variety of important foodstuffs, including fruits, game meats, nuts, mushrooms, honey, spices and flavorings. These wild foods are especially important when agricultural supplies fail. Indeed, wild biodiversity guards against the failure of even the most advanced agricultural systems. For example, the productivity of many of the developed world’s agricultural crops is maintained through the regular assimilation of new genes from wild relatives of these crops. These wild genes offer resistance to the pests and diseases that pose an ever-evolving threat to harvests.

>> Provision of health care
The World Health Organization estimates that 80 per cent of people in the developing world rely on traditional medicines derived mainly from plants. In Southeast Asia, for example, traditional healers use some 6,500 different plant species to treat malaria, stomach ulcers, syphilis, and other diseases. Biodiversity is also critical to the 'formal' health sector of the developed world. A recent survey showed that of the top 150 prescription drugs used in the United States, 118 are based on natural sources. Of these, 74 per cent are derived from plants. Microbes and animal species have also contributed a range of medicines, including Penicillin (derived from the fungus Pencillium notatum) and several drugs – including anesthetics– derived from the skin secretions of tree-frog species. The medicinal importance of biodiversity is particularly impressive considering that only a tiny fraction of earth’s species have been thoroughly investigated for medicinal properties. The investigative process is continually turning up new pharmaceuticals of great promise. A recent study of cone snails, for example, has identified a painkiller that is up to a thousand times more effective than morphine, but without morphine’s addictive properties.

>> Income generation
Needless to say, the above services are all essential to the functioning of the global economy. Yet biodiversity also has great importance as a direct source of incomes and economic development. One example is 'bioprospecting' (the search for previously unknown biotic products of specific utility, such as natural pesticides, anti-fungal toxins and ‘oil-eating’ enzymes). Such discoveries join an impressive list of ‘miscellaneous’ goods provided by biodiversity, including many of our most important building materials, fibres, fuels, waxes, resins, aromatics, dyes and gums. Even in its wholly untapped state, biodiversity does great service to economies through ‘ecotourism’. People taking nature-related holidays contribute at least $500 billion per year to the national incomes of the countries they visit. Florida’s coral reefs, for example, earn around $1.6 billion per year through tourism alone.

>> Spiritual / cultural value
It’s no mystery why people are prepared to spend so much to get close to nature. Human beings instinctively derive aesthetic and spiritual satisfaction from biodiversity. Recent studies have begun to confirm what has always been known: our emotional wellbeing is enhanced by the proximity of natural beauty. The umbilical bond between humanity and biodiversity is reflected in the art, religions and traditions of diverse human cultures: a spiritual heritage that will be lost for all time if its basis – nature itself – continues to be destroyed.

CEs to promote biodiversity

2007-10-29T01:15:00.000-07:00

Bhopal, Oct 25: With the objective of promoting biodiversity, the Madhya Pradesh Council Of Science and Technology (MPCOST) will establish Centres of Excellence in the state. ''The centres -- whose setting up coincides with completion of MPCOST's silver jubilee -- will serve as a medium for enhancing scientific efficiency, technical capability, quality control, according priority to work relating to medicinal and aromatic herbs,'' MPCOST Working Committee Chairman Mahesh Sharma told reporters here today.
The conclusion of the jubilee year would be marked by a three-day Indian Science Conference to get underway here on November 23. The October 27 meeting of MPCOST's Permanent Committee would provide final shape to Conference programmes. A Youth Science Conference is also on the cards.
''Decisions were taken to constitute a Madhya Pradesh Science and Technology Network for MPCOST's statewide expansion, make the Council's Remote-Sensing Centre more effective, initiating programmes for improving MPCOST activities and recruiting scientists,'' Dr Sharma added.
The centres would focus on special skill upgradation of students, youth, farmers, craftspersons and women in the unorganised sector. In three months, MPCOST intends to create a network with two other agencies.
''The Remote-Sensing Centre has begun working on a project affiliated to the Indian Space Research Organisation and on schemes related to the state government's Education, Public Health, Tourism, Environment and Housing departments. Through the medium of the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, the Remote-Sensing Centre has taken up a programme for improving potable water sources,'' Dr Sharma explained. Data was prepared on 80,000 of the state's total four lakh sources and a Telemedicine Scheme prepared.

Biofuels Damaging Ecosystems And Biodiversity

2007-10-29T01:14:00.001-07:00

LONDON (Dow Jones)--Increased demand for biofuels, along with other agricultural commodities, is resulting in ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss, said the U.N. Thursday.

Expansion of the agricultural industry, including the rise in land used for biofuel production, could impact particularly negatively on ecosystems supporting poor populations, according to the U.N.'s Global Environment Outlook 4 report.

With the world population forecast to grow to over 9 billion by 2050, food production will need to increase significantly to meet demand, the report said, noting the conflict between agricultural commodity demands for both food and fuel.

However, the U.N. was not particularly optimistic about any near-term relief to the food versus fuel tension or technology developments within inedible biofuel sources.

"Forest products and the nonfood cellulose component of food crops have a huge potential as an energy source, but technologies are still too costly to compete with fossil fuels at current prices," said the report.

Drought Can Destroy Biodiversity

2007-10-29T01:11:00.000-07:00

Tue Oct 23

The skimmer and swimmer critters in ponds dried out by drought end up looking the same as each other when waters return, causing a decline in biodiversity, a new study finds.
In worst-case outcomes, drops in biodiversity—the variety and number of species, in a given locale can lead to more serious consequences, such as resulting in ecosystem collapses that affect the web of life and food that supports all animals and humans.
Scientists are more interested than ever in the effects of extreme climate swings, such as prolonged drought, because the computer models predict wilder extremes as one effect of the climate change now underway.
To learn how drought affects pond life, Jonathan Chase, an ecologist at Washington University in St. Louis, imposed drought conditions on 20 artificial ponds and investigated how the harsh conditions affected the species counts and varieties.
Each pond community had the same environmental conditions, but Chase varied the timing of the introduction of species, such as dragonflies, water-bugs, frogs, water fowl and algae, before letting the species naturally flourish.
As the communities began to thrive, the species took hold to varying extents pond by pond, with some harboring only 10 to 20 percent of species in common. Some of the variation was due to plants being randomly introduced as they fell from the feathers of a duck, for example.
After pond communities established themselves, Chase imposed the drought conditions on half. When those ponds were allowed to recover from drought and life moved back in, their species content looked much more similar to each other.
“Drought homogenizes the variance among communities,” Chase said. “It takes all these communities that used to be very different from each other and makes them very similar to each other.”
Why? Because certain species are much hardier than others and are quicker to re-establish themselves once the drought subsides.
"When it comes to drought, there are wimpy species and hardy species," Chase said. "Several types of zooplankton, many water-bugs and some frogs are the hardy ones. A wimpy species, perhaps surprisingly, is the bullfrog. Their tadpoles require two years to grow, so they often don’t rebound very well from drought. “
Zooplankton deposit their eggs in mud, so they lay low until waters return, whereas frogs leave the pond when it dries up. Algae and a few plant species that make lots of seeds also weather droughts fairly well, Chase said.
His study, detailed in the Oct. 15 issue of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, establishes an important distinction between local biodiversity (in one pond) and regional diversity (between several ponds), the latter of which is often overlooked, Chase said.
“I found drought had less than a 10-percent reduction on local diversity, but a nearly 50-percent reduction on regional diversity," Chase said. "This is important because if you just count the number of species in any given pond you might say that drought had little effect on species diversity. But if you take exact data and you ask: 'Did drought affect regional diversity?' I found it had a huge effect on regional diversity.”

Parasites A Key To The Decline Of Red Colobus Monkeys In Forest Fragments

2007-10-29T01:06:00.000-07:00

Oct. 28, 2007) — Forest fragmentation threatens biodiversity, often causing declines or local extinctions in a majority of species while enhancing the prospects of a few. A new study from the University of Illinois shows that parasites can play a pivotal role in the decline of species in fragmented forests. This is the first study to look at how forest fragmentation increases the burden of infectious parasites on animals already stressed by disturbances to their habitat.
The study, of black-and-white colobus monkeys and red colobus monkeys in tropical forests in western Uganda, appears in the American Journal of Primatology.
Once dominated by vast forests, Uganda now has less than one-twentieth of its original forest cover. According to the World Resources Institute, its tropical forests are being logged and converted to agricultural land at a rate that outpaces sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. Small tracts remain, however, hemmed in by pastures and croplands. Many of the species that thrived in the original forests are struggling to survive in these parcels, which can be as small as one hectare in size.
“In Uganda, just looking at the primates, it’s one of the most biodiverse places on the earth,” said professor of pathobiology Thomas Gillespie, principal investigator on the study. “You’ve got 12 to 13 species of primates in a core undisturbed forest. But if you go into these forest fragments, you’ll find only three or four species of primates.”
Populations of black-and-white colobus monkeys appear to be stable in the Ugandan forest remnants, while their cousins, the red colobus monkeys, are in decline.
Gillespie and his colleague, Colin Chapman, of McGill University in Montreal, surveyed 20 forest fragments near the western boundary of Kibale National Park, in western Uganda.
They compared the abundance, variety and density of potentially harmful parasites in these fragments to the undisturbed “core forest” of the park.
The researchers followed the monkeys for four years, collecting data on how far the animals ranged, what they ate and which parasites were infecting them.
In those four years, red colobus populations in forest fragments declined 20 percent, whereas populations of black-and-white colobus monkeys remained relatively stable. Both species maintained stable populations in the undisturbed forest.
Scientists have struggled to explain why closely related animals, like these two species of monkeys, can fare so differently in forest fragments. The answer, Gillespie said, lies in a complex interplay of factors, with parasites and nutrition playing key roles.
The researchers focused on two nematodes known to cause significant pathology in monkeys: a whipworm, (Trichuris sp.), and a nodule worm (Oesophagostomum sp.). While feeding on leaves, the monkeys ingest the larval forms of these worms. The larvae mature in the intestines, where they can cause blockages or other damage. The nematodes migrate through blood vessels, causing inflammation, organ damage and, sometimes, death.
The researchers found a higher density of parasites in the forest fragments than in the undisturbed forest. They also found new parasites not seen in the undisturbed forest.
“Several of the parasites in these animals in the fragments never occur in undisturbed forest, and some of these novel parasites are definitely from livestock or people,” Gillespie said. The red colobus monkeys were infected with five of these human or livestock parasites; the black and white colobus carried only two.
Other differences between the two species affect their vulnerability to parasitic infection. Red colobus monkeys congregate and live in large groups, with up to 50 members, compared with about 10 members in the black-and-white groups. Red colobus monkeys eat a much more varied diet. This causes them to travel farther, searching for the foods they need. But many of the plants that make up their diet simply aren’t available in disturbed forest fragments.
“The red colobus typically eat 40 to 50 species of plants, but in these forest fragments we might only have 12 tree species, so there’s a dramatic reduction in what we typically would see them feed on,” Gillespie said.
“The black-and-white colobus tend to feed on whatever’s dominant. They make do with what’s there.”
The black-and-white colobus monkeys’ ability to eat well under a variety of circumstances enhances their ability to withstand parasitic infections, Gillespie said.
Red colobus monkeys’ travels bring them into contact with more parasites. Their compromised nutritional status also weakens them, giving parasites the edge, Gillespie said.
“We asked how parasitism plays into this dynamic of some species doing well and others not doing well after forest fragmentation,” Gillespie said. “This is giving us a new window into what’s happening.”

Biodiversity takes a hit

2007-10-29T00:59:00.001-07:00

October 28, 2007
Wildfires last week have engulfed nearly 360,000 acres of the county, burning the life out of plants and animals that help make the region a jewel of biological diversity.
Massive blazes also render the land less hospitable for humans by increasing the likelihood of future wildfires, debris flows, erosion and water pollution.
“These fires are a staggering tragedy for both people and nature,” said David Hogan of San Diego, a conservation manager for the Center for Biological Diversity, a national environmental group.
“This may be the last straw for endangered species that have already suffered so much habitat loss to development and overly frequent fire.”
Native chaparral and coastal sage scrub in the overlapping burn zones may not recover in time to prevent the spread of fast-growing, non-native grasses. The areas were home to most of San Diego County's more than 40 species listed as threatened or endangered by the federal government.
In addition, grasslands are more vulnerable to wildfires than healthy coastal sage scrub and chaparral. A carelessly tossed cigarette is more likely to ignite the exotic invading grasses than it would the native chaparral.
“The backcountry is converting to a simpler, more weedy, less beautiful landscape than the California most of us moved into,” said Wayne Spencer of the Conservation Biology Institute in Encinitas.
A similar pattern has played out across the West, with virtually every state in the region having to battle the problem.
In areas such as eastern Oregon and the Rockies, native plants repeatedly burned by wildfires cannot regain a foothold because cheat grass and other invaders quickly move in and dominate the terrain.
“It's widespread and it does seem to be increasing,” said Christopher Dionigi, assistant director of the National Invasive Species Council in Washington, D.C.
Russian thistle Even before the latest inferno began Sunday, drought had taken a toll on many of San Diego County's native plants. The dry conditions killed scores of oak trees and allowed bark beetles to finish off weakened pines.
Contrary to popular thought, Southern California is not a desert. Shrubland, a mix of sage scrub and chaparral, is the native landscape for much of the region between the Pacific shoreline and the foothills of coastal mountains.
For instance, nearly 90 percent of the Cleveland National Forest is shrubland rather than coniferous forest.
California has about 8.6 million acres of chaparral, but that figure is declining rapidly. From 1946 to 1987, 1.5 million acres were lost because of urban expansion, ranching and wildfires.
Likewise, development and agriculture have reduced coastal sage scrub to less than 15 percent of its expanse when California became a state.
Coastal sage and chaparral have adapted to withstand periodic fires of 20 to 60 years apart. In fact, the seeds of several native plants need fire and smoke to prepare them to germinate.
“Chaparral requires roughly 20 years or more to recover from a fire to be able to withstand a repeat fire,” said Jon Keeley, a fire ecologist with the U.S. Geological Survey near Fresno.
“The native vegetation typically doesn't recover once it has been taken over by alien grasses.”
Researchers studying the aftermath of the 2003 Cedar fire said pines and other trees in Rancho Cuyamaca State Park are not returning as quickly as originally anticipated.
Several environmentally important parts of the county have been scarred by the latest fires, but ecologists haven't been able to go into those areas to assess the extent of the damage.
Properties that appear to have sustained damage include sections of Palomar Mountain and the Ramona grasslands, Santa Ysabel Open Space Preserve and Volcan Mountain Preserve.
Last week, officials at the South County wildlife refuge were assessing fire damage and planning to keep invasive grasses from taking over on roughly 4,000 burned acres. Their efforts will include replanting native species and using herbicides to knock out unwanted plants.
Advertisement However, ecologists said, limited resources will make it impossible to apply similar measures to most of the county's charred zones.
About 60,000 acres burned in areas set aside for dozens of species under the Multiple Species Conservation Program, said Thomas Oberbauer, who oversees the county's portion of the program. The plan was created in the late 1990s to preserve open spaces while making room for development.
Scott Morrison, an ecologist with The Nature Conservancy in San Diego, said many of the organization's properties in San Diego County have been ravaged in recent days.
“What these fires remind us is that ... we need to make sure that our natural conservation lands are larger than the largest catastrophic fire we face ... so that some places remain unburned and provide a refuge for species,” Morrison said.

Marine Bioblitz uncovers biodiversity bonanza

2007-10-29T00:54:00.000-07:00

Monday, 29 October 2007

Wellington’s Marine Bioblitz has uncovered a biodiversity bonanza, identifying 551 species – including at least four new species during the month-long search.
Marine Bioblitz Co-ordinator Heather Anderson says the Marine Bioblitz – the world’s first – was a tremendous success in revealing the incredible diversity and richness of plant and animal life in Wellington’s marine environment.
“We knew that Wellington was rich in an abundance of marine life, but the variety and number of species found has been really exciting, and demonstrates how little we know about the underwater life that exists right on our doorstep.”
The Bioblitz, conducted in the area off Wellington’s south coast to be announced as the Kupe-Kevin Marine Reserve in January, found four new species:• A many-tentacled tube anemone found by NIWA scientist Malcolm Francis • A tiny red and green nudibranch (sea slug) found by Forest & Bird marine advocate Kirstie Knowles • A bryozoan (a tiny animal that builds a stony skeleton, also known as moss animals or sea mats) found by Kirstie Knowles and NIWA’s Adam Smith• A diatom (a single-celled phytoplankton) found by Margaret Harper of Victoria University.
Dive teams from Island Bay Divers and Dive HQ also found six more potential new species, including a minute “red blob” – the origin of which is so puzzling that the experts are completely baffled about what phylum it might belong to.
These discoveries will now be analysed in more detail by experts to determine whether they are indeed new species previously unknown to science
Another highlight of the Bioblitz was the appearance of two species of whale – an orca and a southern right whale.
Heather Anderson says the Bioblitz brought together scientists, conservationists, divers and the Wellington public and raised public awareness of Wellington’s unique marine biodiversity.
“The Kupe-Kevin Smith Marine Reserve will be New Zealand’s first marine reserve located so close to a major urban centre, and will be the first marine reserve in Cook Strait, which has a diversity of unique marine plants and animals. The marine reserve will play an important role in protecting this rich underwater world.”

Estimating the value of biodiversity

2007-10-29T00:51:00.000-07:00

One ground-breaking aspect of the Global Environment Outlook 2007 issued last week is the attempt to estimate the monetary value of biodiversity.
For instance, the value of coral reefs for fisheries and tourism is estimated at US$30 billion per year, and the value of the herbal medicine market at roughly US$43 billion in 2001 figures.
Although such estimates are often attempted at local levels, expanding the effort to a global level significantly inflates the figure, thus enhancing the shock value of the potential damage and giving it a greater sense of priority.
The authors of the Global Environment Outlook are clearly hoping to build on the success in calculating the economic value of travel and tourism as a job creator and foreign exchange earner, which has helped policy-makers create the conditions for generating phenomenal tourism growth in the last few decades.
They believe the same can be done by estimating the value of biodiversity and its value to tourism.
The report says: "Identifying economic values of ecosystem services, together with the notions of intrinsic value and other factors, will assist significantly in future decisions relating to trade-offs in ecosystem management."
Citing one example, the report says that the global net value of coral reefs relating to fisheries, coastal protection, tourism and biodiversity is estimated at US$29.8 billion oer year. It highlights the Caribbean, a popular tourist region, where human activities reportedly threaten nearly two-thirds of coral reefs.
The report also notes that countries are attempting new ways of raising revenues for environmental protection.
For example, it says, the Protected Areas Conservation Trust in Belize receives most of its revenue from an airport tax of about US$3.75, paid by all visitors upon departure, together with a 20% commission on cruise ship passenger fees. The British overseas island territory of Turks and Caicos designates 1% of a 9% hotel tax to support the maintenance and protection of the country's protected areas.
These so-called "green taxes", although opposed by industry interest groups, are putting pressure on the world's major polluters and environment destroyers, the report says.
At the same time, it says, Environmental degradation due to development raises deep ethical questions that go beyond economic cost-benefit ratios.
"The question of justice is perhaps the greatest moral question emerging in relation to environmental change and sustainable development. Growing evidence indicates that the burden of environmental change is falling far from the greatest consumers of environmental resources, who experience the benefits of development," the report says.
"Often, people living in poverty in the developing world, suffer the negative effects of environmental degradation. Furthermore, costs of environmental degradation will be experienced by humankind in future generations. Profound ethical questions are raised when benefits are extracted from the environment by those who do not bear the burden."
Both tourism and its first-cousin, the air transport industry, produce many economic benefits but are criticised for not doing enough on the ecological front.
Tourism is an economic mainstay in many parts of the world, especially island nations such as the Seychelles, as well as the Mediterranean coastal areas.
At the same time, it cites the urban sprawl of Las Vegas, the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States _ a reference that may soon be applicable to Singapore and Macau as they seek to develop their gaming industries on the Las Vegas model.
"As the (Las Vegas) gaming and tourism industry blossomed, so has the city's population," the report says.
"Population growth has put a strain on water supplies," it adds. "Satellite imagery of Las Vegas provides a dramatic illustration of the spatial patterns and rates of change resulting from the city's urban sprawl."
Another example is the state of Quintana Roo in Mexico, which is experiencing a significant growth in tourism infrastructure all along the Caribbean coast.
The conversion of mangrove forest into beachfront tourist resorts along the Mayan Riviera, south of Cancu{aac}n, has left the coastlines vulnerable. Playa del Carmen, at 14%, has the fastest growth in tourism infrastructure in Mexico. Threats to the aquifers come from increasing water use, of which 99% is withdrawn from groundwater and wastewater disposal, the report says.

Carbon for forests will help Aceh recover from war, tsunami

2007-10-08T20:41:00.000-07:00

Aceh Governor Irwandi Jusuf, a former rebel who was one of only 40 survivors after the December 2004 tsunami struck the prison where he was incarcerated, is now one of Indonesia's leading supporters of forest conservation funded through carbon credits.
Carbon credits through forest conservation will play an important role in Aceh's recovery from decades of civil strife and the devastating 2004 tsunami, which left more than 167,000 people dead and 500,000 homeless in the Indonesia province, said Aceh governor Irwandi Jusuf in meeting in San Francisco. "The world needs more forests to store carbon," he said. "Aceh can give you these forests. This is my obsession -- the forests of Aceh need to be kept well." In one of his first moves as governor, Irwandi in March declared a moratorium on all logging in the province, which had seen an up tick in timber cutting for tsunami reconstruction efforts. The move -- met with derision by some in the Indonesian forestry sector -- was welcomed by environmentalists and appears to have diminished legal and illegal logging, which is rampant in other parts of the country. Irwandi says that protecting Aceh's forests -- which are some of the largest blocks of rainforest remaining on the island of Sumatra -- is his top priority for rebuilding the economy. The next step, he says, is to promote economic growth through sustainable development and reforestation.
"We can provide a lot of employment through a reforestation program," said Irwandi. "People who used to be paid to cut forests can now be paid to reforest. Aceh has 3 million hectares (7.5 million acres) of degraded land that can be used for reforestation and agricultural expansion." "I see three areas," he continued. "Areas of no harvest which are preserved for wildlife, carbon, and other services; community forestry areas where degraded lands are replanted with fruit and timber trees that are then sustainably managed; and the remaining land for oil palm and rubber plantations. Irwandi says that Aceh needs money to start the program and believes that funds could come from carbon credits through avoided deforestation. "I think within six years we could have the world's biggest forest carbon offset program," he said. Avoided deforestation is the process by which forested countries earn carbon credits for protecting forests that lock up large amounts of carbon. Deforestation is a major source of greenhouse gases, accounting for roughly 20 percent of global emissions. Steps to reduce forest clearing and degradation will help mitigate climate change.
Most of Sumatra's lowland rainforest has been cleared by loggers and for oil palm plantations. The conflict in Aceh effectively protected the province's forests by preventing such development. Overall the avoided deforestation market could be substantial -- on the order of tens of billions of dollars per year. Gains would extend beyond helping fighting climate change -- avoided deforestation offers the potential to simultaneously conserve biodiversity, alleviate rural poverty, protect important ecosystem services, and reduce the risk of forest fires in the tropics. Under the existing Kyoto agreement, only reforestation and afforestation are eligible for carbon credits -- forest protection is specifically excluded from receiving carbon credits -- but considerable momentum for avoided deforestation makes it likely that the mechanism will be carefully considered during the next round of climate talks in Bali, Indonesia in December. Last week a group of eight tropical countries containing 80 percent of the world's remaining tropical forest cover -- Brazil, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Gabon, Cameroon, Costa Rica, Congo and Indonesia -- announced an alliance to push avoided deforestation at the upcoming conference. Irwandi, a veterinarian by trade, was formerly a rebel leader with the Free Aceh Movement (GAM), a separatist movement that the Indonesian government has battled for decades. Arrested in 2003, Irwandi was held at Keudah Prison in Banda Aceh when the December 26, 2004 tsunami struck and flooded the facility. Irwandi survived by punching a hole through the ceiling and fleeing to the roof. He was one of 40 survivors at the prison. During the reconciliation that followed the tsunami, Irwandi was elected governor in Aceh’s first democratic election in almost 30 years. The soldiers who once hunted him are now his guards.

Malaysia to step up laws on illegal logging

2007-10-08T20:39:00.000-07:00

KUALA LUMPUR (AFP) - Malaysia, a major timber exporter, said Tuesday that it would beef up its laws to fight a serious illegal logging problem that could harm the country's reputation.
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Deputy prime minister Najib Razak, who also heads the National Forestry Council, said companies involved in logging would now be responsible for providing evidence that they had not cut down trees illegally.
"The council agreed to review and amend the National Forestry Act to incorporate the principle that the burden of proof was transferred to the party that is found to be in possession of timber," he said.
"This means those found in possession of timber must furnish proof from where the trees were cut. If they cannot show proof, it means they have committed an offence," he was quoted as saying by the official Bernama news agency.
Najib's remarks come after Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi pledged last month not to indiscriminately approve logging licences, amid mounting concern that clearances are threatening endangered species and tribal communities.
Najib warned that illegal logging could compromise Malaysia's policy on sustainable management of its environment.
"It can jeopardise our efforts to preserve biodiversity, flora and fauna and have an impact on global warming. At the international level, illegal logging portrays a negative image of our country," he said.
"It can harm our national economy as the timber industry produces 23 billion ringgit (6.8 billion dollars) worth of wood-based products a year," he added.
Najib said that if developed countries in Europe and the United States were to take action, it could "adversely affect" Malaysia's economy.

Malaysia Lifts Ban on Export of Monkeys - Report

2007-10-08T20:37:00.000-07:00

KUALA LUMPUR - Malaysia has lifted a ban on the export of long-tailed macaques in a bid to thin the population of the monkeys, which are becoming a menace in urban areas, state news agency Bernama said on Friday.
Malaysia is negotiating to export the animals to Taiwan, Hong Kong, Korea and Japan, where they could end up as food or as pets, the New Straits Times newspaper said.
"The cabinet has decided to lift the ban which was imposed in 1984 on the capture and export of this type of monkey," Bernama quoted Environment Minister Azmi Khalid said as telling a news conference.
"These monkeys create havoc in urban areas, not only stealing food from houses but also attacking people, and this is a cause for worry," said Azmi, speaking in the country's administrative capital of Putrajaya.
Azmi said efforts to curb their numbers through sterilisation had failed.
An environment ministry study showed that there were 258,406 long-tailed macaques living in urban areas in peninsular Malaysia, with 483,747 living in the wild, Bernama reported.
The export ban was being lifted only in peninsular Malaysia, but not the country's eastern states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo, it added.
The ministry had yet to decide on how to catch the monkeys and export them, Azmi said.
"We want to make sure that long-tailed monkeys in the wild are not disturbed," he said. "We also want to ensure that monkeys caught in urban areas are not ill-treated in the process of export. These monkeys still are on the endangered list of animals, so we have to do this right."
Malaysian wildlife authorities smashed a ring of smugglers last month and confiscated more than 900 poached monkeys destined for China or the Netherlands in what officials said was their biggest seizure involving the animal so far.
The original export ban on the monkeys was the result of an alarming drop in their numbers after an average of 10,000 animals were exported each year in the 1970s for use in biomedical research, as food or as pets, the New Straits Times said.

World on Sustainable Development

2007-10-08T20:36:00.000-07:00

Poverty and the Environment
The causes of poverty and of environmental degradation are inter-related suggesting that approaching sustainable development requires understanding the issues from many angles, not just say an environmentalist or economics perspective alone. Last updated Saturday, February 12, 2005.
Read article: Poverty and the Environment
Non-governmental Organizations on Development Issues
What does an ever-increasing number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) mean? NGOs are non-profit organizations filling the gap where governments will not, or cannot function. In the past however, some NGOs from the wealthy nations have received a bad reputation in some developing nations because of things like arrogance, imposition of their views, being a foreign policy arm or tool of the original country and so on. Even in recent years some of these criticisms still hold. However, recently some new and old NGOs alike, have started to become more participatory and grassroots-oriented to help empower the people they are trying to help, to help themselves. This is in general a positive turn. Yet, the fact that there are so many NGOs popping up everywhere perhaps points to failures of international systems of politics, economics, markets, and basic rights. Last updated Wednesday, June 01, 2005.
Read article: Non-governmental Organizations on Development Issues
US and Foreign Aid Assistance
The US being the wealthiest, strongest and most influential nation, it is worth seeing how their actions or inaction affect other nations. One notable area is regarding the issue of debt and poverty. Being a major part of the IMF, World Bank and even helping to formulate the UN about 50 years ago, their actions can be felt around the world. Last updated Sunday, April 08, 2007.
Read article: US and Foreign Aid Assistance
G8: Too Much Power?
The G8 (the G7—United States, Japan, Germany, UK, France, Germany, Canada—and Russia) make up the most powerful economies and militaries in the world. Together, their influence on world affairs is enormous, and their annual summits become a focal point for global protests and campaigns on issues such as poverty, aid, trade, climate change, Africa, development, and so on. Posted Sunday, June 10, 2007.
Read article: G8: Too Much Power?
Water and Development
Issues such as water privatization are important in the developing world especially as it goes right to the heart of water rights, profits over people, and so on. This article looks into these issues and the impacts it has on people around the world. Last updated Saturday, September 01, 2007.
Read article: Water and Development
Brain Drain of Workers from Poor to Rich Countries
Brain drain is a problem for many poor countries losing skilled workers to richer countries. In healthcare, the effects can often be seen vividly. For example, in many rich countries, up to one third of doctors may be from abroad, many from Sub-Sahara Africa, while many African countries have as little as 500 doctors serving their entire population. Reasons for this brain drain vary, ranging from poor conditions domestically to attractive opportunities and active enticement from abroad. Posted Friday, April 14, 2006.
Read article: Brain Drain of Workers from Poor to Rich Countries
World Summit on Sustainable Development
This section introduces some of the issues on the international summit (August 26 - September 4, 2002) where thousands of delegates met to discuss various issues comprising sustainable development. Of course, there was a lot of controversy including differences between the global North and South on all sorts of issues such as corporate-led globalization, privatization of energy, water, health, etc. In addition there was also concern about motives and influences of large corporations on the outcomes of the Summit. Last updated Saturday, September 07, 2002.
Read article: World Summit on Sustainable Development
United Nations on Development Issues
The United Nations is the largest international body involved in development issues around the world. However, it has many political issues and problems to contend with. But, despite this, it is also performing some much needed tasks around the world, through its many satellite organizations and entities, providing a means to realize the Declaration of Human Rights. Unfortunately though, it is not perfect and is negatively affected by politics of powerful nations that wish to further their own interests. Last updated Wednesday, July 25, 2001.

Sustainomics and sustainable development

2007-10-08T20:32:00.000-07:00

Sustainomics seeks to provide a comprehensive, practical framework for making present and future development efforts more sustainable. Sustainable development has become well accepted worldwide, following the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg. World decision makers are now looking at this approach to address many critical policy issues.
The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987) defined sustainable development as “development which meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Among many subsequent definitions, the sustainable development triangle in Figure 1 shows one widely-accepted concept proposed by Munasinghe, at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. It encompasses three major perspectives—economic, social, and environmental.

Figure 1. Sustainable development triangle – key elements and links (corners, sides, center). Source: Adapted from Munasinghe, 1992, 1994
Historically, the development of the industrialized world focused on material production. Not surprisingly, most industrialized and developing nations have pursued the economic goal of increasing output and growth during the twentieth century. Thus, traditional development was strongly associated with economic growth, with some social aspects as well (see the discussion on poverty and equity, below). By the early 1960s the lack of ‘trickle-down’ benefits to the growing numbers of poor in developing countries, resulted in greater efforts to improve income distribution directly. Consequently, the development paradigm shifted towards equitable growth, where social (distributional) objectives, especially poverty alleviation, were recognized to be as important as economic efficiency. By the early 1980s, a large body of evidence had accumulated that environmental degradation was a major barrier to development, and new proactive safeguards were introduced (such as the environmental assessments). Thus, protection of the environment became the third major element of sustainable development.
Sustainomics has been described by Munasinghe as “a transdisciplinary, integrative, comprehensive, balanced, heuristic and practical framework for making development more sustainable”. It draws on the following basic principles and methods.
Making development more sustainable (MDMS)
The step-by-step approach of “making development more sustainable” (MDMS) becomes the prime objective, while sustainable development is defined as a process (rather than an end point). Since the precise definition of sustainable development remains an elusive and perhaps unreachable goal, a less ambitious strategy that merely seeks to make development more sustainable does offer greater promise. Such a gradient-based method is more practical and permits us to address urgent priorities without delay, because many unsustainable activities are easier to recognize and eliminate. Although MDMS is incremental, it does not imply any limitation in scope (e.g., restricted time horizon or geographic area – see item (c) below). While pursuing the MDMS approach, we also follow a parallel track by continuing our efforts to better define the ultimate goal of sustainable development. Finally, MDMS encourages us to keep future options open and seek robust strategies which meet multiple contingencies and increase resilience.
Sustainable development triangle and balanced viewpoint
Sustainable development requires balanced and integrated analysis from three main perspectives: social, economic, and environmental (Figure 1). Each viewpoint (represented by a vertex) corresponds to a domain (and system) that has its own distinct driving forces and objectives. The economic view is geared towards improving human welfare, primarily through increases in the consumption of goods and services. The environmental domain focuses on protection of the integrity and resilience of ecological systems. The social domain emphasizes the enrichment of human relationships and achievement of individual and group aspirations. The interactions among domains (represented by the sides) are also important to ensure balanced assessment of trade-offs and synergies that might exist among the three dimensions. Issues like poverty may be placed in the center of the triangle to re-emphasize that they are linked to all three dimensions.
Transcending conventional boundaries for better integration
The analysis transcends conventional boundaries imposed by discipline, space, time, stakeholder viewpoints, and operationality. The scope is broadened and extended in all domains, to ensure a comprehensive view. Trans-disciplinary analysis must cover economics, social science and ecology, as well as many other disciplines—since sustainable development itself involves every aspect of human activity, including complex interactions among socioeconomic, ecological and physical systems. Spatial analysis must range from the global to the very local, while the time horizon may extend to decades or centuries. Participation of all stakeholders (including government, private sector and civil society) through inclusion, empowerment and consultation, is important. The analysis needs to encompass the full operational cycle from data gathering to practical policy implementation and monitoring of outcomes. Applying the principle of subsidiarity will make overall governance more effective.
Full cycle application of practical analytical tools
A variety of practical analytical tools also facilitate governance over the full cycle from initial data gathering to ultimate policy implementation.
Two complementary approaches based on “optimality” and “durability” may be used to integrate and synthesize across economic, social and environmental domains, within an integrated assessment modeling framework. An issues-implementation transformation map (IITM) helps to translate issues in the environmental and social domains, into the conventional national economic planning and implementing mechanisms within line ministries and departments.
Restructuring the pattern of development to make economic growth more sustainable is explained through a “policy tunneling” model, especially useful in developing countries, where poverty alleviation will require continued increases in income and consumption. Other practical tools include the Action Impact Matrix (AIM), integrated national economic-environmental accounting (SEEA), sustainable development assessment (SDA), environmental valuation, extended cost-benefit analysis (CBA), multi-criteria analysis (MCA), integrated assessment models (IAMs), and so on. A range of sustainable development indicators help to measure progress and make choices at various levels of aggregation.
In the sustainomics framework, sustainable development is described as a process for improving the range of opportunities that will enable individual human beings and communities to achieve their aspirations and full potential over a sustained period of time, while maintaining the resilience of economic, social and environmental systems. Thus, sustainable development requires both increases in adaptive capacity and opportunities for improving economic, social and ecological systems. According to Gunderson and Holling, improving adaptive capacity increases resilience and sustainability. Expanding the set of opportunities for improvement gives rise to development. Heuristic behavior of individual organisms and systems facilitates learning, the testing of new processes, adaptation, and improvement.
The sustainomics framework recognizes that balance is needed in the relative emphasis placed on traditional development (which is more appealing to the South) versus sustainability (which is emphasised by the North). The approach seeks continuing improvements in the present quality of life at a lower intensity of resource use, thus leaving behind for future generations an undiminished stock of productive assets (i.e., manufactured, natural and social capital) that will improve their quality of life.
Elements of Sustainable Development
Economic Aspects
Economic progress is often evaluated in terms of welfare (or utility) – measured as willingness to pay for goods and services consumed. Thus, many economic policies typically seek to enhance income, and induce more efficient production and consumption of goods and services. The stability of prices and employment are among other important objectives.
Economic efficiency helps maximize income. It is measured against the ideal of Pareto optimality, which encourages actions that will improve the welfare of at least one individual without worsening the situation of anyone else. The idealized, perfectly competitive economy is an important (Pareto optimal) benchmark, where (efficient) market prices play a key role in both allocating productive resources to maximize output, and ensuring optimal consumption choices which maximize consumer utility. If significant economic distortions are present, appropriate shadow prices may be used. The well-known cost-benefit criterion accepts all projects whose net benefits are positive (i.e., aggregate benefits exceed costs). It is based on the weaker ‘quasi’ Pareto condition, which assumes that such net benefits could be redistributed from potential gainers to losers—leaving no one worse off than before. More generally, interpersonal comparisons of welfare are fraught with difficulty – both within and across nations, and over time (e.g., the value of human life).
According to Hicks, economic sustainability seeks to maximize the flow of income that could be generated while at least maintaining the stock of assets (or capital) which yield these beneficial outputs. Economic efficiency continues to optimize both production and consumption. Problems arise in identifying the kinds of capital to be maintained (e.g., manufactured, natural, human and social capital), and their substitutability. Often, it is difficult to value these assets (especially ecological and social resources) and the services they provide. Even key economic assets may be overlooked, especially in situations where non-market based transactions are important. Meanwhile, the equation of welfare with monetary income and consumption has been challenged for many years. More recently, researchers (e.g., Maslow 1970) have identified hierarchies of needs that provide psychic satisfaction, beyond mere goods and services.
The issues of uncertainty, irreversibility and catastrophic collapse pose additional difficulties, in determining dynamically efficient development paths. Many common microeconomic approaches rely on marginal analysis (e.g., comparing incremental costs and benefits of economic activities), which assumes smoothly changing variables. They are inappropriate for analyzing large changes, discontinuous phenomena, and sudden transitions among multiple equilibria. Recent work has begun to explore the behavior of large, non-linear, dynamic and chaotic systems, and concepts like system vulnerability and resilience.
Environmental Aspects
Development in the environmental sense is a recent concern relating to the need to manage scarce natural resources in a prudent manner – because human welfare ultimately depends on ecological services. Ignoring safe ecological limits could undermine long-run prospects for development. Recent literature covers links among environment, growth and sustainable development.
Environmental sustainability focuses on overall viability and normal functioning of natural systems. For ecological systems, sustainability is defined by a comprehensive, multiscale, dynamic, hierarchical measure of resilience, vigor and organization. Resilience is the ability of ecosystems to persist despite external shocks, i.e., the amount of disruption that will cause an ecosystem to switch from one system state to another. An ecosystem state is defined by its internal structure and set of mutually re-inforcing processes. Vigor is associated with the primary productivity or growth of an ecosystem. Organization depends on both complexity and structure of the system. For example, a multicellular organism like a human being is more highly organized than a single-celled amoeba. Higher states of organization imply lower levels of entropy. Thus, the second law of thermodynamics requires that sustainability of complex organisms and systems depend on the use of low-entropy energy derived from their environment, which is returned as (less useful) high-entropy energy.
Natural resource degradation, pollution and loss of biodiversity are detrimental because they reduce resilience, increase vulnerability, and undermine system health. The notions of a safe threshold and carrying capacity are important, to avoid catastrophic ecosystem collapse. Sustainability may be also linked to the normal functioning and longevity of a nested hierarchy of ecological and socioeconomic systems, ordered according to scale – e.g., a human community would consist of many individuals, who are themselves composed of a large number of discrete cells. Gunderson and Holling use the term ‘panarchy’ to denote such a hierarchy of systems and their adaptive cycles across scales. A system at a given level is able to operate in its stable (sustainable) mode, because it is protected by slower and more conservative changes in the super-system above it, while being simultaneously invigorated and energized by faster changes taking place in sub-systems below it.
Sustainable development is not necessarily synonymous with maintaining the ecological status quo. A coupled ecological-socioeconomic system could evolve, while maintaining levels of biodiversity that guarantee resilience of ecosystems on which future human consumption and production depend.
Social Aspects
Social development usually refers to improvements in both individual well-being and overall social welfare resulting from increases in social capital – typically, the accumulation of capacity enabling individuals and communities to work together. According to North, the institutional component of social capital involves formal laws as well as traditional or informal understandings that govern behavior, while the organizational component is embodied in individuals and communities operating within these institutional arrangements. The quantity and quality of social interactions underlying human existence (including levels of mutual trust, and shared social norms and values), determine the stock of social capital. Thus, social capital grows with greater use and erodes through disuse, unlike economic and environmental capital, which are depreciated or depleted by use. We note that some forms of social capital may be harmful (e.g., cooperation within criminal gangs).
There is also an important element of equity and poverty alleviation (see below). Thus, the social dimension of development includes protective strategies that reduce vulnerability, improve equity and ensure that basic needs are met. Future social development will require socio-political institutions that can adapt to meet the challenges of globalization. The latter often undermines traditional coping mechanisms that have evolved in the past (especially to protect disadvantaged groups).
Social sustainability parallels environmental sustainability. Reducing vulnerability and maintaining the ability of socio-cultural systems to withstand shocks, is also important. Enhancing human capital (through education) and strengthening social values, institutions, and governance are key aspects. Many harmful changes occur slowly, and their long-term effects are often overlooked in socio-economic analysis. Preserving cultural capital and diversity worldwide, strengthening social cohesion, and reducing destructive conflicts, are integral elements of this approach. An important aspect involves empowerment and broader participation through subsidiarity – i.e., decentralization of decision-making to the lowest (or most local) level at which it is still effective. In summary, for both ecological and socioeconomic systems, the emphasis is on improving system health and its dynamic ability to adapt to change across a range of spatial and temporal scales, rather than the conservation of some ‘ideal’ static state.
Poverty and Equity
Poverty and equity are two important issues, which have social, economic and environmental dimensions (see Figure 1). Over 2.8 billion people (almost half the global population) live on less than US$2 per day, and 1.2 billion barely survive on under US$1 per day. The top 20 percentile of the world’s population consumes about 83 percent of total output, while the bottom 20 percentile consumes only 1.4 percent. Income disparities are worsening – the per capita ratio between the richest and the poorest 20 percentile groups was 30 to 1 in 1960 and over 80 to 1 by 1995.
Equity is an ethical and usually people-oriented concept with primarily social, and some economic and environmental dimensions. It focuses on the basic fairness of both decision-making processes and outcomes. Equity may be assessed in terms of several generic approaches, including parity, proportionality, priority, utilitarianism, and Rawlsian distributive justice. Societies normally seek to achieve equity (or fairness) by balancing and combining several of these criteria.
Sen states that poverty alleviation, entitlements, improved income distribution and intra-generational (or spatial) equity are key aspects of economic policies seeking to increase overall human welfare. Broadly speaking, economic efficiency provides guidance on producing and consuming goods and services more efficiently, but is unable to provide a means of choosing (from a social perspective) among alternative patterns of consumption which are efficient. Equity principles provide better tools for making judgments about such choices.
Social equity is also linked to sustainability, because grossly unfair distributions of income and social benefits are unlikely to be lasting in the long run. Equity will be strengthened by enhancing pluralism and grass-roots participation in decision-making, and by empowering disadvantaged groups. Arrow et al state that in the long-term, inter-generational equity is vital, where both equity and efficiency aspects are affected by the economic discount rate. The sustainomics framework outlines methods of reconciling potential conflicts between equity and economic efficiency.
Equity in the environmental sense has received recent attention because of disproportionately greater environmental damages suffered by poor groups. Thus, poverty alleviation efforts are being broadened (beyond raising monetary incomes), to address the degraded environmental and social conditions facing the poor.
In summary, both equity and poverty have economic, as well as social and environmental dimensions, and therefore, they need to be assessed using a comprehensive set of indicators. Economic policies should emphasise expanding employment and gainful opportunities for poor people through growth, improving access to markets, and increasing both assets and education. Social policies need to focus on empowerment and inclusion, by making institutions more responsive to the poor and removing barriers that exclude disadvantaged groups. Environmental measures to help poor people might seek to reduce their vulnerability to disasters, crop failures, loss of employment, sickness, economic shocks, etc. Thus, an important objective of poverty alleviation is to provide poor people with assets (e.g., social, natural and economic), that will reduce their vulnerability, and increase the capacity for both short-run coping and longer-run adaptation to external shocks. The foregoing ideas blend with the sustainable livelihoods approach, which focuses on access to portfolios of assets, capacity to withstand shocks, gainful employment, and social processes.
An even broader non-anthropocentric approach to equity involves the concept of fairness in the treatment of non-human forms of life or even inanimate nature. One view asserts that humans have the responsibility of prudent ‘stewardship’ over nature, which goes beyond mere rights of usage.
Consistent integration of economic, social and environmental considerations
We begin by comparing the concepts of ecological, social and economic sustainability. Maintaining the set of opportunities is as important as the preservation of the asset base. The preservation of biodiversity maintains options and allows the system to retain resilience by protecting it from external shocks, in the same manner that preservation of the capital stock protects economic assets for future consumption. Differences emerge because under the economic definition, a society that consumes its fixed capital without replacement is not sustainable, whereas using an ecological approach, loss of resilience implies a reduction in the self-organization of the system, but not necessarily a loss in productivity. In the case of social systems, resilience depends on the capacity of human societies to adapt and continue functioning in the face of stress and shocks. Socio-cultural and ecological sustainability are linked because of the organizational similarities between human societies and ecological systems, and the parallels between biodiversity and cultural diversity. In the longer-term, the concept of co-evolution of social, economic and ecological systems within a larger, more complex adaptive system, provides useful insights regarding harmonious integration of the various elements of sustainable development (see Figure 1).
According to Munasinghe, it is important to integrate and reconcile the economic, social and environmental aspects within a holistic and balanced sustainable development framework. Two broad approaches, based on the concepts of optimality and durability, are relevant for this purpose.
Optimality
The optimality-based approach has been widely used in economic analysis to generally maximize welfare (or utility), subject to the requirement that the stock of productive assets (or welfare itself) is non-decreasing in the long-term. This assumption is common to most sustainable economic growth models. The essence of the approach is illustrated by the simple example of maximization of the flow of aggregate welfare (W), cumulatively discounted over infinite time (t), as represented by the expression:
Here, W is a function of C (consumption), and Z (set of other relevant variables), while r is the discount rate. Side constraints may be imposed to satisfy sustainability needs – e.g., non-decreasing stocks of productive assets.
Some ecological models also optimize variables related to system vigor, like energy use, nutrient flow, or biomass production. In economic models, utility is often measured in terms of net benefits of economic activities. More sophisticated economic optimization approaches include environmental and social variables (e.g., by attempting to value environmental externalities, system resilience, etc). However, given the difficulties of quantifying and valuing many such ‘non-economic’ assets, the costs and benefits associated with market-based activities tend to dominate in most economic optimization models.
Basically, the optimal growth path maximizes economic output, while the sustainability requirement is met by ensuring non-decreasing stocks of assets. Some analysts support a ‘strong sustainability’ constraint, which requires separate preservation of each category of critical asset (e.g., manufactured, natural, socio-cultural and human capital), assuming that they are complements rather than substitutes. Other researchers have argued in favor of ‘weak sustainability,’ which seeks to maintain the aggregate monetary value of the total stock of assets, assuming that various asset types are substitutes and may be valued.
Side constraints are often necessary, because the optimization approach (including economic efficiency and valuation) may not be easily applied to ecological objectives like protecting biodiversity and improving resilience, or to social goals such as promoting equity and empowerment. Such environmental and social variables cannot be easily incorporated within a single valued objective function based on cost-benefit analysis. Thus, techniques like multi-criteria analysis may be required to facilitate trade-offs among non-commensurable variables. Moreover, the lagged price system might not anticipate irreversible environmental and social harm, and non-linear system responses that could lead to catastrophic collapse. Therefore, non-economic indicators of environmental and social status are helpful. The constraints on critical environmental and social indicators are proxies representing safe thresholds, which help to maintain the viability of those systems. Risk and uncertainty also necessitate the use of decision analysis tools.
Durability
The second broad integrative approach focuses primarily on sustaining the quality of life – e.g., by satisfying environmental, social and economic sustainability requirements. Such a framework favors ‘durable’ development paths that permit growth, but are not necessarily economically optimal. There is more willingness to trade off some economic optimality for the sake of greater safety (i.e., risk aversion), in order to stay within critical environmental, social and technical limits.
Economic system durability might require consumption levels to be maintained – i.e., per capita consumption that never falls below some minimum level, or is non-declining. Environmental and social durability requirements may be expressed in terms of indicators of ‘state’ that monitor the longevity and normal functioning of complex ecological, social and techno-economic systems. There is the likelihood of further interaction here due to linkages between the sustainability of social, ecological and techno-economic systems – e.g., social disruption and conflict could exacerbate damage to both ecological and techno-economic systems, and vice versa. By contrast, long-standing social norms in stable traditional societies have helped to protect the environment.
Durability encourages a holistic systemic viewpoint, which is important in sustainomics analysis. The self-organizing and internal structure of complex systems often make ‘the whole more durable (and valuable) than the sum of the parts’. A narrow definition of efficiency based on marginal analysis of individual components may be misleading. For example, it is more difficult to value the integrated functional diversity in a forest ecosystem than the individual species of trees and animals. Therefore, the former is more likely to fall victim to market failure (as an externality). Furthermore, even where correct environmental shadow prices prevail, some analysts point out that economic cost minimization could lead to homogenization and consequent reductions in system diversity. Broader systems analysis also helps to identify the benefits of cooperative structures and behavior, which a more partial analysis may neglect.
The possibility of many durable paths favors simulation-based methods, including consideration of alternative futures (rather than one optimal result). This approach parallels research on integrating human actors into ecological models, including multiple-agent modeling to account for heterogeneous behavior, bounded rationality leading to different perceptions and biases, and social interactions involving imitation, reciprocity and comparison.
In the durability approach, maintaining asset stocks enhances system sustainability, because various forms of capital are a bulwark that decreases vulnerability to external shocks and reduces irreversible harm, rather than merely producing more economic outputs. System vulnerability, resilience, vigor, organization and ability to adapt will depend dynamically on the capital endowment as well as the magnitude and rate of change of a shock.
Indicators
The status of asset stocks helps to assess whether development is becoming more sustainable. Therefore, it is important to identify relevant economic, social and environmental indicators, at different levels of aggregation ranging from the global/macro to local/micro. Indicators must be comprehensive in scope, multi-dimensional in nature (where appropriate), and account for spatial differences.
Measuring economic, environmental, human and social capital also raises various problems. Manufactured capital may be estimated using conventional neoclassical economic analysis. Market prices are useful when economic distortions are relatively low, while shadow prices could be applied in cases where market prices are unreliable. Natural capital needs to be quantified first in terms of key physical attributes. Typically, damage to natural capital may be assessed by the level of air pollution (e.g., concentrations of suspended particulate, sulfur dioxide or greenhouse gases), water pollution (e.g., biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD)), and land degradation (e.g., soil erosion or deforestation). Then this physical damage could be valued using environmental and resource economics techniques. Human resource stocks are often measured by educational levels, productivity and earning potential. Social capital is more difficult to assess. Putnam described it as ‘horizontal associations’ among people, or social networks and associated behavioral norms and values, which affect the productivity of communities. Social capital may be viewed more broadly in terms of social structures, which facilitate the activities of agents in society – including both horizontal and vertical associations (like firms). An even wider definition is implied by the institutional approach that includes not only the mainly informal relationships implied by the earlier two views, but also more formal frameworks provided by governments, political systems, and legal provisions. Recent work has sought to distinguish between social and political capital (i.e., the networks of power and influence that link individuals and communities to the higher levels of decision-making).
Complementarity and convergence of optimal and durable approaches
The two approaches are often complementary in national economic management. For example, economy-wide policies involving both fiscal and monetary measures (e.g., taxes, subsidies, interest and foreign exchange rates) might be optimized using quantitative macroeconomic models. Nevertheless, decision-makers inevitably modify these economically ‘optimal’ policies before implementing them, to take into account other ‘durable’ sociopolitical considerations (like poverty alleviation, regional factors, etc.), which facilitate governance and stability. The determination of an appropriate target trajectory for future global greenhouse gas emissions provides another useful illustration of the interplay of durability and optimality. Climate change researchers are currently exploring the application of large and complex integrated assessment models that include coupled sub-models representing various ecological, geophysical and socioeconomic systems—with scope to test both optimality and durability approaches.
In practice, the two approaches point towards convergent solutions. First, wastes ought to be generated at rates within the assimilative capacity of the environment. Second, scarce renewable resources should be utilized at rates compatible with the natural rate of regeneration. Third, non-renewable resource use rates should depend on the substitutability between these resources and technological progress. Both wastes and natural resource inputs might be minimized, by moving from linear throughput to closed loop (or recycling) mode. Finally, inter- and intra-generational equity (especially poverty alleviation), pluralistic and consultative decision-making, and enhanced social values and institutions, are important additional aspects.
Tools for Sustainable Development Analysis and Assessment
Some important tools for sustainable development analysis and assessment include: the Action Impact Matrix (AIM) for prioritising the economic, environmental and social interactions of various macroeconomic and sectoral development policies; advanced cost-benefit analysis (CBA) including economic valuation of environmental and social impacts; multi-criteria analysis (MCA), especially in cases where some impacts cannot be easily quantified in monetary terms; and green accounting.
The Action Impact Matrix (AIM) process is the key link from initial data gathering to practical policy application and feedback. Critical sustainable development concerns are incorporated into conventional national development strategy and goals in two main ways: an upward link where sustainable development issues are embedded in the macro-strategy of a country via the medium- to long-term development path; and a downward link where sustainable development issues are integrated into the national development strategy in the short- to medium-term, by carrying out sustainable development assessments (SDA) of micro-level projects and policies.
Sustainable Development Assessment (SDA) is another important tool to ensure balanced analysis of both development and sustainability concerns in both policies and projects. The ‘economic’ component of SDA is based on conventional economic and financial analysis (including cost-benefit analysis). The other two key components are environmental and social assessment (EA and SA). SDA also includes poverty assessment. Thus, SDA seeks to integrate and harmonize economic, environmental and social analyses.
Green accounting includes material and energy balances (MEB) and greened national accounts, notably the System of integrated Environmental and Economic Accounts (SEEA). Physical MEB assess material throughput and the dematerialization of the economy as an ecological sustainability concept. The monetary part of the SEEA measures produced and natural capital maintenance, which reflects an economic sustainability concept.

bumi terancam...

2007-10-03T09:08:00.001-07:00

Laporan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling 2003 menyatakan Malaysia turut mengalami kemerosotan kualiti alam sekitar di mana 51% sungai di Malaysia dikategorikan sebagai tercemar dan sedikit tercemar berpunca daripada pelepasan kumbahan, effluen industri dan aktiviti pembangunan. Penipisan lapisan ozon telah menyebabkan pemanasan global (global warming) dan membawa implikasi negatif ke atas tumbuh-tumbuhan dan kehidupan laut. Pelepasan bahan kimia dan buangan toksik seperti racun perosak DDT, polychlorinated biphenlys (PCBs) dan endocrine disruptors ke alam sekitar dikenalpasti boleh diserap oleh tubuh dan terkumpul di dalam tisu lemak (fatty tissues) manusia. Ini menyebabkan gangguan kepada fungsi hormon, kanser dan kecacatan kelahiran. Ancaman terhadap kepelbagaian biologi (biodiversity) boleh menjejaskan ekosistem (contoh - pembersihan air yang berlaku apabila air larian mengalir melalui ekosistem berkaitan dan tanah lembap).

Penulis turut mengenengahkan keperluan manusia memelihara alam sekitar dari perspektif agama. Perbincangan berkisar tentang pandangan Islam terhadap alam semesta; konsep Islam tentang pembangunan; konsep manusia sebagai khalifah; akauntabiliti terhadap Allah S.W.T. dan sesame manusia; serta konsep pemuliharaan alam sekitar sebagai satu ibadah. Secara umumnya setiap orang adalah bertanggungjawab ke atas semua tindak tanduknya termasuklah dalam aspek pemuliharaan alam sekitar dan ia akan dihisab di atas apa yang telah dipertanggungjawabkan ke atasnya.

Salah satu cabaran paling getir yang dihadapi manusia sekarang ialah menguruskan alam sekitar secara bijak. Natijah daripada pengurusan yang tidak bijak ialah tercetusnya krisis alam sekitar yang mengancam kehidupan manusia itu sendiri di atas planet ini. Tidak pernah terjadi ancaman itu sebegini meluas jangkauannya dan berpanjangan kesannya seperti ancaman yang dihadapi pada masa kini. Wawasan 2020 yang diilhamkan oleh bekas Perdana Menteri Malaysia, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamed juga mengenalpasti cabaran terhadap alam sekitar sebagai salah satu cabaran yang perlu ditangani oleh Malaysia dalam perjalanannya ke destinasi menjadi negara maju pada 2020.

Kalaulah alam sekitar itu penting untuk kelestarian pembangunan negara dan kelangsungan kehidupan manusia di planet ini, kenapakah kita masih acuh tak acuh memelihara dan memuliharanya?. Kenapakah amaran daripada pakar-pakar tidak diindah oleh kita semua?. Dalam kemelut yang bermacam ragam yang dihadapi dunia sekarang, ramai sarjana barat dan timur menganjurkan manusia kembali semula kepada agama untuk mendapat petunjuk untuk mengatasi kemelut ini. Apakah ada apa-apa peranan dapat dimainkan oleh agama dalam hal ini dan adakh agama dapat mengemukakan pedoman dan tuntunan yang boleh menyuluhi kegelapan yang dihadapi oleh manusia? Kertas ini akan cuba mengupas soalan penting ini.

2. KRISIS ALAM SEKITAR - SEPINTAS LALU

2.1 Pencemaran

Pencemaran udara termasuk carbon monoksida, ozon, sulfur dioksida, oksida-oksida nitrogen dan partikulat. Pencemarpencemar ini secara asasnya terhasil daripada pembakaran bahan api fossil, terutamanya oleh loji janakuasa yang menggunakan arangbatu dan kenderaan yang menggunakan petrol. Oksida-oksida nitrogen boleh menyebabkan terbentuknya ozon di paras bumi (ground level ozone). Partikulat pula dihasilkan dari pelbagai punca termasuk kenderaan disel. Udara di bandar - bandar biasanya mengandungi campuran pelbagai pencemar yang disebut di atas dan boleh mendatangkan pelbagai kesan negatif kepada manusia.

Pendedahan kepada karbon monoksida melambatkan tindakbalas dan menyebabkan rasa mengantuk dan nitrogen dioksida boleh memburukkan lagi penyakit lelah (asthma) dan mengurangkan fungsi paru-paru (lung function). Ozon juga menyebabkan inflamasi paru-paru (lung inflammation) dan mengurangkan fungsi paru-paru dan keupayaan bergerak (exercise capacity). Organisasi Kesihatan Dunia (World Health Organization) melaporkan bahawa tiga (3) juta orang mati setiap tahun disebabkan pencemaran udara. Ini adalah tiga (3) kali lebih tinggi daripada jumlah kematian yang disebabkan kemalangan kenderaan. Pencemaran air pula disebabkan oleh pelbagai aktiviti manusia termasuk pelepasan dari industri yang mengandungi pelbagai jenis pencemar termasuk bahan organik, bahan kimia dan juga pencemar fizikal.

Di antara pencemar ini yang berbahaya ialah logam-logam berat dan pelbagai non-biodegradable compounds yang sebahagiannya mempunyai kesan ketara ke atas kesihatan manusia di dalam jangkamasa panjang. Dunia telah menyaksikan dan sejarah telah merakamkan episod malapetaka alam sekitar di merata dunia. Malaysia juga tidak terlepas daripada berkongsi pengalaman mengalami kemerosotan kualiti alam sekitar, walaupun dalam skala yang lebih rendah. Laporan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling 2003 melaporkan kualiti udara di bandarbandar besar dan beberapa lokasi di Malaysia telah dicemari oleh pelepasan dari kenderaan dan juga industri. 51% daripada sungaisungai di Malaysia juga mengalami pencemaran dan dikategorikan sebagai tercemar dan sedikit tercemar, terutamanya disebabkan oleh pelepasan kumbahan, effluen industri dan aktiviti pembangunan tanah.

2.2 Penipisan Lapisan Ozon

Allah S.W.T. telah menyediakan lapisan gas (yang dikenali sebagai lapisan ozon) di ketinggian lebih kurang 20 - 40 km dari paras bumi berfungsi sebagai penghalang kepada sinaran ultra ungu (UV) daripada sampai ke permukaan bumi. UV adalah sinaran berkuasa tinggi yang merbahaya kepada manusia dan ekosistem. Namun begitu lapisan ozon ini telah mengalami kemusnahan dan menjadi nipis disebabkan oleh penggunaan bahan chlorofluoro carbon (CFC). Fenomena penipisan lapisan ozon ini dikenali umum sebagai fenomena Ôlubang ozonÕ (ozone hole).

CFC adalah kimia buatan manusia yang mempunyai pelbagai kegunaan oleh industri dan komersial. Penipisan lapisan ozon memberi implikasi ketara ke atas tumbuh-tumbuhan dan bendabenda bernyawa. Sinaran UV-B boleh menyebabkan penyakit mata (cataract, snow blindness), kanser kulit, mempengaruhi sistem kelalian (immune system) dan kemusnahan bahan genetic DNA. Walaupun kesan ke atas tumbuhan dan binatang kurang difahami daripada kesannya ke atas manusia, kajian menunjukkan tumbuhan mengalami kesan negatif daripada snaran UV. Hasil tanaman akan berkurangan dan ini bermakna penghasilan makanan yang lebih rendah dari setiap unit keluasan tanah. Kehidupan laut juga terjejas apabila sinaran UV mendatangkan kemudaratan ke atas plankton tumbuhan dan binatang.

Pelepasan CFC juga menyebabkan pemanasan global (global warming) melalui dua cara; iaitu pertamanya sebagai gas rumah hijau yang menyerap haba. Suhu bumi akan meningkat yang mengakibatkan perubahan iklim. Keduanya, pemusnahan ozon menyebabkan lebih banyak sinaran matahari masuk dan memanaskan atmosfera rendah. Pemanasan global boleh menyebabkan kawasankawasan rendah dan juga negara-negara yang terletak di paras rendah ditenggelami air akibat peningkatan paras laut. Peningkatan sinaran UV di permukaan bumi juga mengakibatkan pencemaran udara menjadi lebih buruk. Interaksi pelepasan dari punca bergerak dan industri menyediakan keadaan yang kondusif bagi penghasilan ozon, di permukaan bumi yang akibat peningkatan paras laut.

Peningkatan sinaran UV di permukaan bumi juga mengakibatkan pencemaran udara menjadi lebih buruk. Interaksi pelepasan dari punca bergerak dan industry menyediakan keadaan yang kondusif bagi penghasilan ozon, di permukaan bumi yang mana menjadi bahan toksik kepada manusia dan tumbuhan. Sinaran UV juga menyebabkan kerosakan dan kepada polimer yang digunakan di dalam bangunan, cat, bahan pembungkusan (packaging) dan lain-lain.

2.3 Bahan Kimia dan Buangan Toksik

Salah satu ciri kehidupan moden ialah kebergantungan manusia kepada bahan kimia. Setiap tahun beribu-ribu bahan kimia baru dihasilkan untuk pelbagai kegunaan. Terdapat banyak peringkat bahan-bahan kimia masuk ke alam sekitar seperti:
(i) Ada bahan kimia yang memang cara penggunaannya memerlukan produk tersebut sepenuhnya dimasukkan ke alam sekitar seperti racun makhluk perosak dan baja.
(ii) Semasa penggunaannya, sebahagian bahan akan dilepaskan ke alam sekitar seperti penguapan bahan pelarut dari cat dan gam (adhesives).
(iii) Pelupusan sisa buangan hasil dari proses industri.
(iv) Pelepasan pelarut terpakai, cecair pencuci (cleaning fluid), lubricants yang mungkin mengandungi pencemar-pencemar lain.
(v) Pelupusan bahan kimia dari drum kosong.
(vi) Kebocoran dari tangki penstoran.
(vii) Tumpahan semasa kemalangan industri.
(viii) Tumpahan semasa kemalangan pengangkutan.

Akibat buruk daripada pengurusan buangan toksik di masa lampau yang tidak teratur masih menghantui masyarakat dunia. Penggunaan racun makhluk perosak DDT secara tidak terkawal telah dikenalpasti menyebabkan bahan ini terkumpul di dalam tisu lemak (fatty tissues) manusia dan juga dalam kehidupan lain yang tinggal jauh dari tempat penggunaan bahan tersebut. Perkara ini telah dibangkitkan untuk perhatian masyarakat dunia pertama kali pada 1962 oleh Rachel Carson dalam bukunya Silent Spring. Pelepasan effluen mengandungi methyl mercury oleh sebuah kilang kimia di Teluk Minamata, Jepun telah menyebabkan beratus-ratus kes lumpuh dan kelumpuhan deria (sensory loss). Inorganic mercury ini telah mengalami proses bioaccumulation di dalam hidupan laut (shellfish) yang menjadi sumber protin penduduk di sekitar teluk tersebut.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) juga, seperti DDT telah banyak digunakan di sekitar tahun 1960 - 1970 untuk pelbagai tujuan seperti transformer & coolant, plasticizer dan dalam pembuatan kertas tanpa karbon. Pendedahan kepada PCB dan polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) boleh menyebabkan kaguguran dan kecacatan kelahiran. Namun begitu simbol pencemaran oleh bahan buangan toksik dan merbahaya ialah kes Love Canal, di Amerika Syarikat yang telah membuka mata di seluruh dunia. Buangan toksik telah dilupuskan dengan menanamnya di sebuah terusan yang tidak digunakan selama beberapa puluh tahun. Di atas tapak ini seterusnya dibangunkan sebuah sekolah dan di sekelilingnya juga dibina beratus-ratus rumah kediaman. Tidak berapa lama kemudian penduduk mula menghidu bau bahan kimia dan pelbagai penyakit yang berpunca daripada kimia dialami penduduk tersebut.

Akhirnya Kerajaan membeli kesemua rumah-rumah terlibat dan memindahkan penduduk ke tempat lain. Terdapat juga bahan yang disebut sebagai endocrine disruptors iaitu bahan kimia yang apabila diserap oleh tubuh boleh mengganggu fungsi hormon dan seterusnya boleh mengakibatkan pelbagai kesan dan penyakit seperti kesan ke atas sistem kelalian dan kanser. Endocrine disruptors yang telah dikenalpasti memberi kesan kepada manusia ialah dioksin, PCBs dan DDT. Banyak bahan kimia terutama racun makhluk perosak adalah suspected endocrine disruptors berdasarkan kajian yang terhad ke atas binatang.

2.4 Kepelbagaian Biologi (Biodiversity)

Kepelbagaian skala besar disebut kepelbagaian biologi (biodiversity) adalah penting untuk masa depan planet. Kepelbagaian biologi atau biod bermaksud kepelbagaian kehidupan di bumi ini dan kebergantungan mereka kepada satu yang lain. Perubahan atau kehilangan salah satu komponen boleh menyebabkan berlakunya impak yang tidak terjangka dan berbahaya kepada rantaian hidup yang dikenali sebagai ekosistem. Kehidupan manusia bergantung kepada biod melalui cara-cara yang tidak dihargai.

Kebanyakan sumber makanan manusia asalnya diambil dari sumber liar (wild resources) seperti bijirin dan perikanan laut. Kebergantungan kita kepada sumber kayu hutan masih jelas di seluruh dunia di mana sejumlah kecil sahaja dihasilkan dari hutan ladang. Empat daripada 150 ubat preskripsi teratas yang digunakan di Amerika Syarikat mempunyai asalnya daripada bahan semulajadi. Sebagai contoh aspirin pada mulanya diakstrak daripada kulit pokok willow. Eko-pelancongan juga mendapat manfaat dari interaksi kita dengan dunia semulajadi. Terdapat pelbagai bentuk perkhidmatan yang diberi oleh ekosistem (ecosystem services).

Salah satu contoh ialah pembersihan air yang berlaku apabila air larian mengalir melalui ekosistem berkaitan dan tanah lembab. Kewujudan tumbuhan juga berfungsi sebagai sinki yang efisyen bagi pencemarpencemar udara. Aliran air juga diregulasi oleh tumbuhantumbuhan yang terdapat di hulu limbangan yang dapat mengawal pemendapan dan banjir. Dalam jangkamasa yang panjang, kepelbagaian biologi memainkan peranan penting menyelenggara perkhidmatan ekosistem yang mengalami masa naik dan turunnya. Biologi dapat diumpamakan sebagai insurans kesihatan di mana ekosistem yang mempunyai pelbagai sepsis yang memberi fungsi yang sama mempunyai lebih daya tahan menghadapi tekanan alam sekitar dan pulih daripada ancaman dengan lebih cepat.

3. PANDANGAN ISLAM TERHADAP PENGURUSAN ALAM SEKITAR

Islam adalah agama yang membawa rahmat kepada manusia dan alam semesta. Ajaran Islam adalah syumul merangkumi segala aspek kehidupan manusia menjadikannya satu tatacara hidup (comprehensive code of life). Ia memadukan keperluan rohani dan jasmani, kepentingan duniawi dan ukhrawi. Setiap persoalan hidup diberi panduan dan saranan sama ada secara detil ataupun dalam bentuk kaedah-kaedah umum supaya tindaktanduk manusia dipimpin ke jalan yang akan memberi manfaat kepadanya dan alam semesta serta menjauhi kemusnahan dan kemudharatan. Kesyumulan Islam juga terserlah dengan ajaran-ajarannya yang bukan sahaja mengatur tatacara hubungan manusia dengan khaliqnya tetapi juga hubungan di antara manusia sesama manusia dan makhluk Tuhan yang lain. Islam adalah agama akidah dan syariah. Tujuan utama akidah ialah memurnikan perhubungan manusia dengan Tuhannya. Di antara tujuan syariat pula ialah menjaga keturunan, harta dan nyawa manusia. Pemusnahan dan pencemaran alam sekitar telah terbukti mengancam ketigatiga perkara tersebut di atas.

3.1 Pandangan Islam Terhadap Alam Semesta

Alam sekitar yang mengkagumkan yang mengelilingi kita; hutan dan tumbuhan yang hijau serta pelbagai warna yang meliputi sebahagian besar dunia; gunung-ganang yang perkasa yang
terpacak sebagai pasak menunjang ke bumi; lautan yang penuh misteri yang tidak henti-hentinya memukul ombak ke pantai, tidak dijadikan dengan sia-sia tanpa tujuan. Bukan saja setiap kejadian Allah S.W.T. mempunyai peranan masing-masing dalam hubungan intim yang disebut ekosistem, malah ianya memenuhi tujuan berikut:

(a) sebagai ayatullah, atau tanda-tanda kebesaran Alllah S.W.T.,
(b) sebagai buku ilmu, yang sentiasa bersedia untuk dikaji dan digali rahsia khazanah ilmu Allah S.W.T. yang tidak habishabisnya,
(c) sebagai hadiah daripada Allah S.W.T. kepada makhluknya untuk dimanfaatkan untuk kesenangan hidup di dunia ini. Allah S.W.T. telah menciptakan makhluk di alam semesta ini dengan penuh keseimbangan (mizan) sama ada dari segi kuantiti dan kualitinya.

Allah S.W.T. berfirman:
Sesungguhnya Kami menjadikan tiap-tiap sesuatu dengan Kadar
(Al-Qamar 54 : 49)

Tiap-tiap sesuatu di sisiNya mempunyai kadar
(Ar-Rad 13 : 8)

Kami tumuhkan tiap sesuatu dengan ukuran
(Al-Hijr 15 : 19)

Kepelbagaian bentuk dan fungsi makhluk ciptaan Allah S.W.T. ini sama ada yang bernyawa atau tidak saling lengkapmelengkapi membolekan alam semesta ini memainkan fungsi yang telah ditetapkan kepadanya dengan penuh tertib sesuai dengan kehendak Penciptanya. Allah S.W.T. juga telah menciptakan segala-galanya dengan penuh bijaksana dan dengan tujuan yang tertentu; bukan dengan sia-sia. Semua makhluk ciptaan Tuhan telah ditetapkan fungsi masing-masing dan simbiosis di antara yang bernyawa dan yang tidak bernyawa melahirkan manfaat dan kebaikan kepada semua.

Allah S.W.T. berfirman:
Bukanlah Kami jadikan langit, bumi dan apa-apa yang di antara keduanya dengan bermain-main. Tiadalah kami jadikan keduanya melainkan dengan kebenaran..
(Ad-Dukhan 44 : 38-39)

3.2 Konsep Islam tentang pembangunan
Pendekatan Islam terhadap usaha membangun dan memanfaatkan sumber-sumber asli dapat disimpulkan dari nasihat Sayyidina Ali bin Abi Talib, Khalifah keempat kepada seorang pengusaha yang telah membangunkan tanah terbiar: Usahakanlah dengan rasa gembira, asalkan engkau seorang yang membawa kepada kebaikan bukan kejahatan; yang berniat untuk membangunkan ladang bukan untuk mendatangkan kemusnahan (Athar diriwayatkan oleh Yahya ibnu Adam dalam kitab al-Kharaj)

Salah satu manifestasi ketidaksyukuran manusia kepada Allah S.W.T. ialah pembaziran dan pemborosan yang telah mengakibatkan pemusnahan sumber dan penghasilan bahan buangan yang bertambah-tambah kuantitinya setiap tahun. Hutan tropika yang penuh dengan khazanah yang tidak ternilai diterokai dan dimusnahkan dengan rakusnya melalui eksploitasi yang tidak berteraskan pengurusan lestari. Habitat untuk hidupan liar juga dimusnahkan bahkan hidupan itu sendiri dibunuh dengan kejam di mana sebahagian daripada badannya akan dijadikan hiasan. Inilah sifat syaitan yang sentiasa tidak bersyukur kepada Tuhannya.

Allah S.W.T. berfirman:
Sesungguhnya orang-orang yang membazir itu adalah saudara syaitan dan syaitan itu amat engkar akan Tuhannya.
( Al-Israk 17 : 27)

Islam memahami dan memberi perhatian tentang dualisma sifat manusia: sifat fizikalnya (jasmani) dan sifat kejiwaannya (rohani). Prinsip pembangunan dalam Islam mengambilkira dualisme ini untuk mempastikan matlamat terakhir pembangunan fizikal ialah untuk menghasilkan ketenangan jiwa. Allah S.W.T. telah menjadikan bumi ini dan seluruh isinya untuk manfaat manusia dan manusia juga telah diperintahkan oleh Allah S.W.T. untuk membangunkan bumi ini.

Allah S.W.T. berfirman:
Dia yang menciptakan untukmu apa-apa yang di bumi semuanya
(Al-Baqarah 2 : 29)

Dia menjadikan kamu daripada bumi serta memakmurkanmu didalamnya

bumi terancam...

2007-10-03T09:08:00.000-07:00

Nasib seekor tenggiling...

2007-10-03T08:45:00.000-07:00

Pihak Berkuasa Thailand Rampas Tenggiling, Penyu Dari Pulau Pinang

BANGKOK, 27 Jun (Bernama) -- Pihak berkuasa Thailand merampas 60 kotak kayu yang mengandungi kira-kira 250 ekor tenggiling dan 64 ekor penyu spesies terancam yang diseludup dari Pulau Pinang ke Vientiane, Laos.

Berdasarkan maklumat awam, pihak berkuasa di lapangan terbang Don Muang di sini memeriksa kotak berkenaan, yang sepatutnya mengandungi penyu spesies biasa, tiba dengan penerbangan Thai Airways dari Pulau Pinang dan transit di sini.

Bangkok Post melaporkan pemeriksaan mendapati kontena itu diisi dengan tenggiling dan penyu itu, yang disenaraikan dalam Konvensyen Perdagangan Antarabangsa bagi Spesies Terancam (Cites), yang melarang perdagangan antarabangsa bagi spesies yang disenaraikan.

Lt Thanayod Kengkasikij dari Divisyen Perhutanan Polis berkata dari Laos, kemungkinan haiwan itu dihantar ke China, dengan peminat daging haiwan itu sedia membayar kira-kira dua juta baht untuknya.

Menggambarkannya sebagai satu daripada rampasan terbesar, Thanayod berkata beliau tidak faham kenapa polis dan kastam Malaysia gagal menghalangnya sebelum ia berlepas dari Pulau Pinang kerana konsainan itu agak besar dan mudah dikesan.

"Ia harus menjadi isyarat bagi negara-negara Asia untuk meningkatkan kerjasama untuk mencegah penyeludupan haiwan liar," katanya.

Dua pekerja sebuah agensi perkapalan tempatan yang tampil untuk menuntut kotak berkenaan telah ditahan untuk disoal siasat tetapi mereka menafikan sebarang penglibatan dalam penyeludupan haiwan liar.

Thailand terkenal sebagai pusat transit bagi perdagangan haram hidupan liar.

Thanayod berkata kebanyakan haiwan itu diseludup dari Indonesia dan Malaysia dan kebanyakannya dihantar ke restoran daging haiwan liar di China melalui Laos.

Mook Wongchyakul dari WildAid memberitahu akhbar itu, tenggiling dijual pada harga Bt1,800 hingga Bt3,000 baht seekor di sepanjang sempadan Thai-Laos. (RM1=Bt11)

Katanya seekor tenggiling bersaiz kecil boleh dijual pada harga Bt7,700 hingga Bt11,500 baht seekor di pasaran China dan haiwan itu dijual bagi daging dan kulitnya.

Di bawah undang-undang Thailand, penyeludup haiwan haram yang disabitkan boleh didenda sehingga Bt40,000 baht dan atau penjara empat tahun.

Biodiversiti dan Peranannya Terhadap Keseimbangan Alam Sekitar

2007-10-03T08:40:00.000-07:00

Biodiversiti merupakan khazanah yang tidak ternilai dan menjadi warisan kepada generasi akan datang. Mendengar istilah biodiversiti mungkin ada di antara kita yang masih belum jelas mengenai takrifannya. Perkataan biodiversiti sebenarnya merupakan perkataan singkatan bagi ‘biological diversity' ataupun kepelbagaian biologi yang mana ia didefinisikan sebagai keanekaan di antara organisma hidup daripada pelbagai sumber baik daratan mahupun samudera dan lain-lain yang melangkaui ekosistem akuatik dan sebahagian daripada ekosistem yang kompleks yang termasuk di dalam kelompok spesies dan antara spesies dan ekosistemnya.Biodiversiti terbahagi kepada tiga peringkat iaitu kepelbagaian genetik, kepelbagaian spesies dan kepelbagaian ekosistem.

Kepelbagaian genetik merupakan kepelbagaian di dalam spesies yang diukur mengikut variasi dalam gen setiap tumbuhan, haiwan dan mikroorganisma. Kepelbagaian genetik berlaku dalam dan di antara populasi sesuatu spesies. Bagi kepelbagaian spesies pula ia merujuk kepada pelbagai organisma hidup di dunia. Manakala kepelbagaian ekosistem pula adalah merujuk kepada pelbagai habitat, komuniti biosis dan proses ekologi dalam persekitaran daratan, laut dan persekitaran akuatik yang lain.

Sebagai rakyat Malaysia kita patut berbangga kerana memiliki negara yang sangat kaya dengan biodiversitinya dan termasuk dalam lingkungan dua belas buah negara mega kepelbagaian biologi di dunia yang mana masih lagi mempunyai kekayaan biodiversiti yang dianggarkan antara 60% hingga 70% daripada jumlah biodiversiti dunia. Kepelbagaian tersebut dapat digambarkan melalui flora dan fauna yang masih wujud di negara kita pada hari ini. Didapati lebih kurang 12, 500 spesies tumbuh-tumbuhan berbunga dan lebih daripada 1,100 spesies paku pakis yang masih lagi menghuni hutan negara kita. Kebanyakan daripada spesies-spesies tersebut adalah sangat unik dan tidak ditemui di mana-mana tempat lain di dunia. Malah dari segi kepelbagaian spesies tumbuhan di Rantau Asia-Australia pula, negara kita masih lagi mengekalkan kedudukan di tempat kelima. Kalau dilihat daripada kedudukan negara kita, ia merupakan sesuatu yang sangat membanggakan kerana dalam kebimbangan negara-negara lain di dunia mengenai kepupusan habitat hutan serta sumber-sumber yang mendiaminya, namun kita masih lagi dapat mengekalkan khazanah yang sangat berharga ini.

Bagi spesies fauna, negara kita mempunyai kira-kira 1,500 haiwan vertebrata dan 150, 000 haiwan invertebrata. Walaupun jumlah bagi spesies tumbuhan dan haiwan vertebrata darat adalah tidak seberapa sebagaimana yang dimiliki oleh empat buah lagi negara lain di Asia Timur, namun Malaysia masih mempunyai bilangan yang terbanyak dari segi jumlah spesies per kilometer persegi. Kita patut bersyukur kepada Allah S.W.T. kerana masih lagi mempunyai kekayaan biodiversiti yang tidak ternilai yang menjadi sumber rezeki untuk keperluan kehidupan seharian kita. Malah rezeki yang Allah S.W.T. kurniakan kepada kita tidak terhitung banyaknya dan tidak pernah putus. Justeru, kita sebagai khalifah di bumi ini patut menghargai dan menggunakannya dengan sebaik mungkin.

Dalam Al-Quran ada menyebut bahawa Allah S.W.T. menjanjikan rezeki kepada setiap makhluk-Nya yang dilahirkan ke dunia ini seperti yang terkandung di dalam Surah Sabaa, Ayat 39 yang bermaksud "Katakanlah sesungguhnya Tuhanku melapangkan rezeki bagi sesiapa yang dikehendaki-Nya di kalangan hamba-hamba-Nya dan Dia menyempitkan bagi (sesiapa yang dikehendaki-Nya). Dan barang siapa sahaja yang kamu nafkahkan (belanjakan), maka Allah S.W.T. akan menggantikannya dan Dialah juga sebaik-baik pemberi rezeki". Justeru, dalam konteks ini, biodiversiti merupakan sebahagian daripada rezeki anugerah Ilahi kepada kita di muka bumi ini. Oleh yang demikian, sebagai khalifah Allah, manusia diamanahkan untuk menguruskan rezeki kurniaan-Nya dengan penuh kebijaksanaan baik di daratan, lautan mahupun di angkasa.

Biodiversiti yang dikurniakan oleh Allah S.W.T. kepada kita merupakan nikmat yang sangat besar dalam kehidupan kita. Ia memainkan peranan yang sangat penting dalam mengekalkan keseimbangan alam sekitar kita. Bagaimanakah biodiversiti dikatakan membantu dalam proses keseimbangan alam sekitar? Jika kita amati, biodiversiti merangkumi satu spesies atau kombinasi spesies dan kekayaan; interaksi spesies, interaksi antara organisma dan komponen bukan hidup dalam persekitaran; tingkah laku; sejarah hidup dan kepelbagaian fisiologi; kepelbagaian fizikal habitat yang terdiri daripada pelbagai biologi semua habitat atau ekosistem yang berbeza di sesuatu kawasan. Dengan mengekalkan kekompleksan dalam ekosistem ini, ia akan menyumbang kepada keseimbangan alam sekitar yang sekaligus akan turut menjamin khidmat ekologi yang bernilai kepada manusia.

Setiap kejadian yang Allah S.W.T. ciptakan di atas muka bumi ini mempunyai alasan tersendiri. Sebagai contoh, spesies reptilia terutamanya ular mempunyai peranan tersendiri dalam mengekalkan keseimbangan ekosistem, dan penciptaannya bukan sekadar untuk menghuni alam tanpa sebarang sebab. Malah ia diperlukan dalam kehidupan manusia terutama dalam bidang pertanian padi yakni berperanan mengawal tanaman daripada serangan tikus dan serangan perosak yang lain. Bayangkan jika spesies reptilia ini pupus, pastinya manusia akan berdepan pelbagai masalah khususnya bagi mengawal pertanian daripada serangan perosak. Didapati kira-kira 99% potensi serangga perosak tanaman adalah dikawal oleh pelbagai jenis organisma merangkumi serangga, burung dan fungi (kulat) selain spesies reptilia yang disebutkan di atas.

Biodiversiti juga penting dalam pendebungaan dan pengeluaran hasil tanaman. Bagi kebanyakan tumbuh-tumbuhan berbunga, pembiakannya bergantung kepada beberapa spesies haiwan seperti lebah, rama-rama, kelawar dan sebagainya dalam membantunya membiak melalui pengangkutan debunga. Malah lebih daripada satu per tiga hasil tanaman makanan manusia sejagat adalah bergantung kepada pendebungaan semulajadi ini. Selain itu, kebanyakan spesies haiwan yang mendiami hutan kita juga turut memainkan peranan penting menjalankan fungsi tambahan dalam pembiakan tumbuhan melalui penyebaran biji benih. Di sini sangat jelas menggambarkan peri pentingnya peranan spesies fauna dalam mengekalkan keseimbanagn alam sekitar secara semulajadi.

Selain bertindak sebagai agen pendebungaan dan penyebaran biji benih, biodiversiti juga memainkan peranan penting dalam menstabilkan iklim. Di mana tisu tumbuhan dan bahan organik lain dalam lingkungan ekosistem daratan dan laut bertindak sebagai gedung kepada karbon yang membantu memperlahankan pembangunan karbon dioksida dalam atmosfera dan ia secara automatik membantu menyumbang kepada kestabilan iklim. Ekosistem juga turut mempengaruhi keupayaan langsung ke atas bentuk cuaca persekitaran. Sebagai contoh, lembapan yang dibebaskan ke atmosfera melalui hutan hujan menyebabkan hujan ribut malar dan akan menghadkan kadar kehilangan air daripada sesuatu kawasan dan membantu mengawal suhu permukaan. Sementara itu, dalam iklim sejuk ekosistem hutan bertindak sebagai penebat dan tampan angin bagi membantu mengurangkan kesan suhu dingin.

Biodiversiti bukan sahaja penting dalam proses menstabilkan iklim, malah ia juga memainkan peranan penting dalam mencegah dan mengurangkan kesan bencana alam. Hutan dan padang rumput misalnya sangat membantu dalam melindungi landskap daripada hakisan, kehilangan nutrien dan tanah runtuh melalui tindakan cengkaman akar. Bagi sesetengah ekosistem pantai seperti paya masin, paya bakau dan sebagainya sangat membantu dalam menghalang berlakunya hakisan pinggir pantai dan mengurangkan kesan bencana alam seperti tsunami.

Selain itu, biodiversiti juga memainkan peranan penting dalam penjanaan tanah dan pengekalan kualiti tanah. Fenomena ini berlaku melaui aktiviti mikrobiologi oleh spesies-spesies organisma seperti bakteria, alga, fungi, hama, mentibang dan cacing yang mana sangat penting dalam proses penghuraian tanah kepada bahan organik dan membebaskan nutrien penting yang diperlukan oleh tumbuhan untuk hidup. Proses tersebut memainkan peranan mustahak dalam kitaran elemen seperti nitrogen, karbon dan fosforus antara organisma hidup dan bukan hidup dalam biosfera.

Selain penting dalam proses penjanaan tanah, ia turut memainkan peranan dalam mengekalkan kualiti udara. Spesies tumbuhan bertindak membersih udara dan mengawal kandungan atmosfera, mengitar semula keperluan oksigen dan menapis partikel-partikel berbahaya yang terhasil daripada aktiviti-aktiviti industri.

Bukan itu sahaja, malah biodiversiti juga penting dalam mengekalkan kualiti air. Ekosistem tanah lembap(kawasan paya) misalnya membantu menyerap dan mengitar semula nutrien-nutrien penting, merawat kumbahan dan membersihkan sisa tanah. Di dalam sistem muara pula, moluska (binatang berbadan lembut dan bercangkerang) membantu menyingkirkan nutrien daripada air bagi menghalang pengayaan melampau nutrien dan mengelakkan kehadiraan masalah seperti terjadinya eutrofikasi (proses peningkatan laju input bahan organik ke muara atau secara umumnya adalah proses penyuburan perairan secara berlebihan disebabkan oleh kemasukan bahan organik) daripada proses penyalinan baja. Pokok-pokok dan tanah hutan pula bertindak membersih air yang mengalir melalui ekosistem hutan. Dalam proses menghalang tanah daripada dihanyutkan, ekosistem hutan juga berperanan membantu menghalang pemendapan kelodak berbahaya ke sungai dan empangan yang wujud daripada hakisan dan tanah runtuh.

Begitulah besarnya peranan biodiversiti dalam mengekalkan keseimbangan alam sekitar kita. Justeru itu, kewujudan biodiversiti jangka panjang adalah sangat perlu bagi memastikan keseimbangan dan kelestarian alam sekitar kita terus terpelihara. Kesedaran masyarakat mengenai peri pentingnya biodiversiti kepada pembangunan umah dan negara perlulah dipupuk dari masa ke semasa agar keselamatan biodiversiti kita terus terjamin. Selain itu, penambahbaikan ke atas pengurusan biodiversiti secara lestari perlu dilakukan bagi menjamin pengekalan khazanah tersebut untuk turut dinikmati oleh generasi akan datang. Oleh yang demikian, kita perlu mewujudkan satu garis panduan yang dapat melahirkan satu interaksi sihat antara manusia, biodiversiti dan alam sekitar yang didiami agar khazanah yang sangat berharga ini akan terus terpelihara.

biodiversiti

2007-10-03T08:36:00.000-07:00

Ke arah melaksanakan pertanian ekologi
Berita Harian, 12 Nov 2002

Oleh Junita Mat Rasid

SEKTOR pertanian hari ini menghadapi cabaran serius untuk meningkatkan hasil bagi memenuhi keperluan makanan selaras dengan populasi penduduk. Hasil pertanian perlu sentiasa ditingkatkan dan pada masa yang sama kita perlu memastikan sumber alam semula jadi tidak dieksploitasi secara keterlaluan yang boleh menyebabkan kerosakan.

Bagaimana, proses meningkatkan pengeluaran pertanian yang diamalkan sentiasa terdedah kepada kerosakan habitat sehingga menyebabkan pelbagai spesies musnah.

Di negara ini, dalam tempoh 1955 hingga 2000, pengeluaran makanan meningkat 2.6 peratus setahun, berbanding keperluan makanan meningkat antara 6 hingga 7 peratus setahun.

Bagaimanapun peningkatan kegiatan pengeluaran pertanian seperti yang diamalkan di kebanyakan negara di dunia, menimbulkan ancaman kepada sebahagian besar sistem ekologi semula jadi.

Pertanian tidak boleh dihentikan tetapi jika polisi pertanian yang diamalkan sekarang tidak diubah, tidak mustahil biodiversiti akan musnah dalam tempoh 50 tahun akan datang.

Hari ini biodiversiti terancam dan mungkin pupus kerana kegiatan manusia sendiri. Walaupun Malaysia adalah antara negara di dunia yang kaya dengan biodiversiti, tanpa pengurusan sistematik dan kesedaran semua pihak, biodiversiti akan musnah begitu saja.

Bidang ini perlu ada keseimbangan antara usaha untuk memulihara biodiversiti yang selalu dilaung-laungkan negara maju dengan hak negara membangun yang kaya dengan khazanah ini untuk menggunakan secara mapan.

Biodiversiti merujuk kepada unsur semula jadi yang meliputi haiwan, tumbuhan dan mikro organisma yang membantu sistem ekologi. Ia membantu mengekalkan kepentingan keseimbangan atmosfera bumi, melindungi tadahan air, memperbaharui tanah dan mengitar semula nutrien.

Kepentingan biodiversiti tidak dapat dinafikan, malah di sesetengah kawasan yang mempunyai jumlah biodiversiti yang sedikit seperti di gurun, kehadiran beberapa spesies di kawasan itu masing-masing mempunyai peranan penting kepada semua hidupan di kawasan itu.

Penyelidik Pemodelan Ekologi Pusat Penyelidikan Strategik, Alam Sekitar dan Sumber Semula Jadi di Institut Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan Pertanian Malaysia (Mardi), Dr Mohd Norowi Hamid, berkata haiwan termasuk serangga sebenarnya membantu produktiviti tumbuhan, selain menyumbang kepada kesuburan tanah dan mengatur populasi serangga perosak.

Katanya, tumbuhan serta rumput pula membantu memastikan sumber air bersih dan mengawal banjir, manakala mikro organisma memainkan peranan mengurai bahan organik termasuk membentuk tanah, membantu pergerakan udara dan air serta memusnahkan serangga perosak.

Banyak kajian mendapati ada langkah yang boleh dijalankan untuk mengendalikan pewujudan bersama antara hidupan alam sekitar dan pertanian.

Dr Mohd Norowi berkata, serangga turut menyumbang kepada ekologi, tanpanya fungsi ekosistem mungkin tidak seimbang.

“Serangga adalah antara binatang yang mula memproses tumbuhan kepada protein dan menyediakan makanan dalam rantai makanan dan turut bertindak sebagai ejen kitar semula.

“Malah serangga turut membantu meningkatkan tahap kesuburan tanah dan menjadi ejen pengawalan biologi serta ejen pendebungaan,” katanya.

Katanya, tanpa pengurusan sempurna, pertanian akan menghapuskan habitat hidupan liar.

Beliau berkata, kehilangan habitat yang disebabkan pembangunan pertanian dan perubahan tanah pertanian menjadi bandar dikenal pasti sebagai ancaman moden yang serius terhadap pengekalan biodiversiti.

Katanya, separuh daripada hutan, kawasan tropika digunakan untuk pembangunan, manakala lebih satu pertiga padang rumput dan savana turut digunakan untuk kegiatan pertanian.

Di Asia Tenggara, penggunaan tanah pertanian meningkat 11 juta hektar tanah dalam tempoh 1980-an hingga awal 1990-an dengan kebanyakannya adalah tanah hutan yang diterokai.

Selain itu pertanian turut menyebabkan pencemaran bahan kimia yang akhirnya boleh mengurangkan biodiversiti.

Setiap tahun, negara membelanjakan kira-kira RM300 juta untuk racun serangga dengan 75 hingga 85 peratus daripadanya adalah racun rumpai. Kebanyakan daripada racun serangga ini menyumbang kepada hasil tanaman.

“Dianggarkan separuh daripada pengeluaran gandum akan musnah jika petani tidak menggunakan racun serangga.

“Malangnya, kebanyakan racun serangga juga mempunyai kesan buruk terhadap biodiversiti, sama ada melalui racun kimia oleh haiwan atau melalui pencemaran air dan habitatnya,” katanya.

Sisa racun serangga boleh mengganggu hidupan dalam air dan pesisiran pantai, termasuk batu karang, hutan paya bakau dan rumpai laut.

Pertanian perlu diuruskan dengan baik bagi melindungi biodiversiti, nilai habitat dan pada masa sama menyediakan bekalan makanan serta pendapatan kepada penduduk.

Pengurusan ekosistem yang dijalankan dengan gabungan strategi untuk menyediakan sumber makanan dan pada masa sama melindungi haiwan boleh menjadi langkah berkesan pengekalan biodiversiti.

Pertanian berasaskan ekologi adalah sistem pertanian yang tidak bergantung sepenuhnya kepada bahan kimia, sebaliknya menggunakan tindak balas ekologi sedia ada untuk meningkatkan produktiviti dan perlindungan.

Melalui pengurusan kegunaan biodiversiti ini, dunia tidak perlu lagi bergantung sepenuhnya kepada bahan kimia.

Sebagai pusat mega biodiversiti, Malaysia mempunyai banyak pilihan ejen biologi yang lebih selamat digunakan termasuk bakteria, tumbuhan, haiwan dan bahan galian.

Ejen biologi secara amnya mempunyai sasaran yang terhad dan mekanisme tindak balas yang khusus untuk menghapuskan perosak.

Ada tiga jenis ejen biologi bagi mengawal makhluk perosak iaitu ejen tumbuhan, biokimia dan mikrob. Ejen tumbuhan dihasilkan daripada bahan biak baka yang dimasukkan dalam sesuatu pokok.

Ejen biokimia pula adalah bahan asli yang mempunyai mekanisme tindak balas tidak bersifat toksik, manakala ejen mikrob terdiri daripada bakteria, kulat, virus dan protozoa sebagai bahan aktif.

Pertanian organik adalah antara pertanian ekologi yang bergantung kepada sumber semula jadi untuk meningkatkan hasil pertanian dan pemprosesan makanan.

Dr Norowi berkata, antara strategi mewujudkan dasar pertanian ekologi ialah dengan mengurangkan kemusnahan habitat melalui peningkatan produktiviti pertanian dan pengekalan tanah pertanian sedia ada.

Katanya, jika produktiviti ditingkatkan, keperluan untuk membuka kawasan pertanian baru menurun dan secara tidak langsung mengelak daripada pemusnahan habitat biodiversiti.

Selain itu, katanya, penyediaan sebahagian kecil kawasan pertanian bertujuan mengekalkan habitat tumbuhan dan haiwan sedia ada turut menyumbang kepada pertanian ekologi.

Sebagai contoh, katanya, negara Eropah turut memberikan bayaran kepada petani yang mengekalkan habitat semula jadi di ladang mereka.

Beliau berkata, kita juga perlu melindungi lebih banyak kawasan berhampiran tanah pertanian yang mengekalkan habitat asal kerana ia boleh bertindak meningkatkan produktiviti pertanian, selain menjadi kawasan tadahan hujan.

Pelaksanaan kaedah pertanian yang mengurangkan pencemaran perlu diamalkan bagi mewujudkan pertanian ekologi.

Sistem pertanian intensif melalui penggunaan racun serangga dan baja boleh meningkatkan hasil tetapi penggunaan yang berlebihan tanpa pengurusan cekap boleh menyebabkan pencemaran alam sekitar melalui sisa penggunaan racun dan baja.

Contohnya di Wilayah Yunnan, selatan China, petani berjaya mengurangkan penggunaan racun serangga melalui penanaman pelbagai jenis padi dalam satu kawasan yang boleh mengawal masalah penyakit.

Kajian menunjukkan melalui kaedah itu membantu mencegah penyakit dan secara tidak langsung meningkatkan hasil sehingga 89 peratus.

Peningkatan kaedah pengurusan sumber semula jadi juga membantu banyak spesies liar yang berbeza hidup. Contohnya kaedah pembalakan yang baik akan mencegah kerosakan dan meningkatkan pokok yang ada terus hidup.

Pertanian berasaskan ekologi menyediakan garis panduan untuk membangunkan kepelbagaian kaedah yang memberikan kelebihan kepada kesan gabungan tumbuhan dan haiwan biodiversiti.

Pertanian ekologi berupaya meningkatkan ekonomi dan mengekalkan agrosistem melalui sistem pengurusan yang selaras dengan keadaan alam sekitar dan sosio ekonomi.

Dalam strategi pertanian berasaskan ekologi ini, komponen pengurusan mementingkan pengekalan dan perkembangan sumber pertanian seperti tanah, fauna, tumbuhan dan biodiversiti dengan menitikberatkan kaedah pembangunan yang menggalakkan petani turut bekerjasama menjalankan kegiatan pertanian yang selaras dengan keperluan sosio ekonomi dan keadaan alam sekitar.

Peningkatan kesedaran di kalangan orang ramai dan masyarakat mengenai isu biodiversiti penting dengan setiap orang mempunyai tanggungjawab untuk menghormati kewujudan makhluk di dunia, di samping mengurangkan tindakan yang boleh merosakkan alam sekitar kerana setiap organisme mempunyai fungsi tersendiri dan saling berkait rapat dalam memastikan dunia ini terus sejahtera.

Tidak salah jika masyarakat turut menghormati alam sekitar yang menyumbang kepada kesempurnaan kehidupan.

Biodiversiti berpotensi untuk dimajukan, misalnya, tumbuh-tumbuhan dan mikro organisme jadi produk berguna seperti ubat-ubatan dan produk industri.

Biodiversiti berfungsi penting dalam memastikan alam sekitar di sesebuah negara atau tempat itu terus stabil dan tidak tercemar.

Contohnya, dengan adanya hutan yang dijaga baik, kita juga dapat memperoleh sumber air bersih di samping memastikan udara bersih dan suhu panas tidak meningkat secara mendadak.

Biodiversiti yang diurus secara baik juga boleh mendatangkan pendapatan tinggi kepada negara. Sebagai contoh, hasil balak yang diuruskan secara mapan, ikan di laut yang terus boleh ditangkap oleh nelayan serta tumbuh-tumbuhan, mikro organisme yang berpotensi dijadikan bahan industri atau ubat-ubatan.

Langkah pemuliharaan alam sekitar harus dijalankan dengan rasional dan pragmatik iaitu mengambil kira kemampuan dan juga kepentingan sesebuah negara.

Tidak dinafikan negara perlu meningkatkan pembangunan demi kepentingan ekonomi tetapi khazanah alam semula jadi perlu dipulihara demi kepentingan bersama dan warisan untuk generasi akan datang.

China Starts Countdown To Save Biodiversity By 2010

2007-09-30T01:22:00.000-07:00

September 27, 2007 , from The World Conservation Union .

As the rate of biodiversity loss accelerates worldwide, civil society organizations and governments are joining forces to fight the global extinction crisis. On September 7 in Beijing, twenty Chinese and international organizations signed the Countdown 2010 declaration, committing themselves to additional efforts to reduce biodiversity loss by the year 2010.

According to the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, China has a "particularly large number" of species in danger of extinction. China is also one of the world’s biologically richest countries. At the Countdown 2010 Launch, organizations ranging from local Chinese NGOs to international organizations active in China to government-affiliated institutions joined together to declare their commitment to saving biodiversity in China. With this decision, they honor the global 2010 biodiversity target, a commitment made by state representatives at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 to significantly reduce biodiversity loss by 2010.

Countdown 2010 is a network of active partners working together towards the 2010 biodiversity target. Each partner commits to additional efforts to tackle the causes of biodiversity loss. The secretariat – hosted by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) – facilitates and encourages action, promotes the importance of the 2010 biodiversity target and assesses progress towards 2010. Countdown 2010 now has hubs in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America, and the establishment of a Countdown 2010 hub in China has been spearheaded by the IUCN China Program.

"We're excited to be bringing Countdown 2010 to China, one of the world's greatest storehouses of biodiversity," said Wiebke Herding, of the Countdown 2010 secretariat. "Countdown 2010 is starting with an impressive array of organizations here. I'm sure that by 2010 we'll see the positive impact of this network on China's biodiversity."

Prior to the Launch, a consultation was held with key partners to discuss how best to promote the 2010 biodiversity target in China. IUCN Chief Scientist Jeffrey A. McNeely led discussion on monitoring progress towards the 2010 biodiversity target, while others discussed communications challenges, civil society capacity needs, and the necessity of effective information exchange, offering concrete suggestions for potential actions to be taken by Countdown 2010 and partners.

11 new species found in central Vietnam

2007-09-28T05:37:00.000-07:00

HANOI, Vietnam - Scientists have discovered 11 new species of plants and animals in Vietnam, including a snake, two butterflies and five orchid varieties, the World Wide Fund for Nature said Wednesday.
The new species were found in a remote region known as the "Green Corridor" in Thua Thien Hue province in central Vietnam, the international conservation group said.

"You only discover so many new species in very special places, and the Green Corridor is one of them," Chris Dickinson, the WWF's chief technical adviser in the region, said in a statement.

The new snake species, the white-lipped keelback, generally lives near streams and eats frogs and other small animals, the WWF said. It has a yellow-white stripe along its head, red dots on its body and can grow to more than 30 inches long.

The new butterfly species are among eight discovered in Thua Thien Hue since 1996. One is a "skipper," a butterfly that flies in a quick, darting motion.

Three of the new orchid species are leafless, which is unusual for orchids, the WWF said. The other new plant species include one in the aspidistra family, which produces a black flower and can subsist in low light, and an arum, which produces yellow flowers surrounded by funnel-shaped leaves.

"It's great news for Vietnam," said Bernard O'Callaghan, Vietnam program coordinator for the World Conservation Union. "The jungles and mountains of Vietnam are fascinating places and they continue to surprise scientists."

The WWF said all the new species are exclusive to tropical forests in Vietnam's Annamites mountain range. It said all the species in the area are under threat from illegal logging, hunting and development.

Two-headed turtle goes on display in Pa.

2007-09-28T05:34:00.000-07:00

NORRISTOWN, Pa. - A pet store has bought a two-headed turtle from a collector and plans to keep it on display, the store manager said. The 2-month-old turtle, actually conjoined red-eared slider twins, fits on a silver dollar.

It has two heads sticking out from opposite ends of its shell, along with a pair of front feet on each side. But there is just one set of back feet and one tail.

The turtle is apparently healthy, and the species can live 15 to 20 years, said Jay Jacoby, manager of Big Al's Aquarium Supercenter in East Norriton. The turtle has not yet been named.

The store would not disclose how much it paid.

The same exotic-turtle collector sold another Big Al's store a conjoined-twin turtle about 20 years ago, Jacoby said. The man lives in Florida, but he declined to identify him.

SUNDALAND

2007-09-28T00:02:00.000-07:00

The spectacular flora and fauna of the Sundaland Hotspot are succumbing to the explosive growth of industrial forestry in these islands and to the international animal trade that claims tigers, monkeys, and turtle species for food and medicine in other countries. Populations of the orangutan, found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic decline. Some of the last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are also found on the islands of Java and Sumatra. Like many tropical areas, the forests are being cleared for commercial uses. Rubber, oil palm, and pulp production are three of the most detrimental forces facing biodiversity in the Sundaland Hotspot.

Overview
The Sundaland hotspot covers the western half of the Indo-Malayan archipelago, an arc of some 17,000 equatorial islands, and is dominated by two of the largest islands in the world: Borneo (725,000 kmÂ²) and Sumatra (427,300 kmÂ²). More than a million years ago, the islands of Sundaland were connected to mainland Asia. As sea levels changed during the Pleistocene, this connection periodically disappeared, eventually leading to the current isolation of the islands. The topography of the hotspot ranges from the hilly and mountainous regions of Sumatra and Borneo, where Mt. Kinabalu rises to 4,101 meters, to the fertile volcanic soils of Java and Bali, the former dominated by 23 active volcanoes. Granite and limestone mountains rising to 2,189 meters are the backbone of the Malay Peninsula. Politically, Sundaland covers a small portion of southern Thailand (provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat); nearly all of Malaysia (nearly all of Peninsular Malaysia and the East Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo); Singapore at the tip of the Malay Peninsula; all of Brunei Darussalam; and all of the western half of the megadiversity country of Indonesia, including Kalimantan (the Indonesian portion of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Bali). The Nicobar Islands, which are under Indian jurisdiction, are also included. Sundaland is bordered by three hotspots. The boundary between the Sundaland Hotspot and the Indo-Burma Hotspot to the northwest is here taken as the Kangar-Pattani Line, which crosses the Thailand-Malaysia border. Wallacea lies immediately to the east of the Sundaland Hotspot, separated by the famous Wallaceâ??s Line, while the 7,100 islands of the Philippines Hotspot lie immediately to the northeast. Lowland rainforests are dominated by the towering trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae. Sandy and rocky coastlines harbor stands of beach forest, while muddy shores are lined with mangrove forests, replaced inland by large peat swamp forests. In some places, ancient uplifted coral reefs support specialized forests tolerant of the high levels of calcium and magnesium in these soils. Infertile tertiary sandstone ridges support heath forest. Higher elevations boast montane forests thick with moss, lichens, and orchids, while further up, scrubby subalpine forests are dominated by rhododendrons. At the very tops of the highest mountain peaks, the land is mostly rocky and without much vegetation.

Unique and Threatened Biodiversity of Sundaland

2007-09-27T23:36:00.000-07:00

Sundaland is one of the biologically richest hotspots on Earth, holding about 25,000 species of vascular plants, 15,000 (60 percent) of which are found nowhere else. One plant family, the Scyphostegiaceae, is confined to the hotspot and is represented by a single tree species, Scyphostegia borneensis from Borneo. There are at least 117 endemic plant genera in the hotspot; 59 of these endemic genera are found in Borneo, 17 in Sumatra, and 41 on the Malay Peninsula. Borneo boasts a spectacular diversity of trees. There are about 3,000 species, including more than 265 species of dipterocarps; no less than 155 of these are endemic to the island. Borneo also has more than 2,000 species of orchids. The other islands are less diverse than Borneo but still boast an impressive variety of plant life. Sumatran forests include more than 100 dipterocarp species, nearly a dozen of which are endemic, and Java has more than 270 endemic orchids. Notable plants in the hotspot include members of the genus Rafflesia, represented by 16 species with very large flowers. One of these, Rafflesia arnoldii, has the largest flowers in the world, measuring up to one meter in diameter.

Of the approximately 770 bird species that regularly occur in Sundaland, nearly 150 are endemic; around 40 of these endemic species are threatened. Borneo alone supports nearly 30 endemic species, most of which are montane species. As such, the Bornean Mountains, with 20 species confined to this EBA, are considered one of five Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) recognized by BirdLife International in this hotspot, in addition to Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia, Enggano, the Java and Bali Forests, and the Javan Coastal Zone. Native species include the Bali starling ( Leucopsar rothschildi, CR), a species endemic to Bali island and whose wild population fell to only six birds in 2001 due largely to trapping for the illegal cage-bird trade, and the Javan hawk-eagle ( Spizaetus bartelsi, EN), estimated to number around 300-450 surviving pairs. The Javanese lapwing ( Vanellus macropterus, CR), which once inhabited river deltas and marshes in the west and east, has not been recorded since 1940 and is considered Possibly Extinct.

2. Mammals
Of Sundaland's more than 380 mammal species, over 170 are endemic to the hotspot. In addition, 17 of 136 genera are endemic. Borneo boasts the most endemic mammal species of any island in the hotspot, with over 25 species found nowhere else. Of special interest are the four Mentawai Islands off the west coast of Sumatra (Siberut, Sipora, North Pagai, and South Pagai). These small islands, covering only 5,951 km², are home to fully four endemic species of primates, including the endemic genus Simias , the pig-tailed langur. Of all of Sundaland's diverse and threatened species, the best symbols of the vital need for conservation in the hotspot are its large mammals. The best known of these are the orang-utans, represented by two species: the Bornean ( Pongo pygmaeus, EN), and the Sumatran ( Pongo abelii , CR), the latter of which had an estimated 3,500 individuals surviving in the wild in Sumatra at the end of 2002. Orang-utans, which mature slowly and have a low reproductive rate, are threatened by habitat loss due to logging, fires, and agricultural conversion. Once reduced, their populations can take many years to recover. Other famous flagships include the Proboscis monkey ( Nasalis larvatus, EN), found only on Borneo, and two rhinoceros species, which are the most threatened and least known of the five surviving rhino species on Earth. The Javan rhino ( Rhinoceros sondaicus, CR), which was once found throughout Southeast Asia, is now represented by only about 40-50 individuals, most surviving in Ujung Kulong National Park in West Java, with no more than six animals outside the hotspot in Nam Cat Tien National Park in Vietnam. The Sumatran rhino ( Dicerorhinos sumatrensis, CR) ranged as far as Assam and Myanmar in the past. It is now believed to remain only in Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sabah. Both rhinoceros species are severely threatened by poaching.

3. Reptiles
Reptile endemism is impressive in Sundaland. There are over 450 species of reptiles, roughly 250 of which are endemic, including 24 genera. There are also three endemic reptile families: two snake families, Anomochilidae and Xenophidiidae, and the monotypic Lanthanotidae, represented by the very rare and little known Bornean earless monitor lizard ( Lanthanotus borneensis), a remnant of ancient fauna in the region. One of the most distinctive reptiles in the hotspot is the endemic false gharial ( Tomistoma schlegelii, EN), a freshwater crocodilian species that can grow up to 4.7 meters in length and is found mostly in Sumatra and Borneo. Other threatened reptiles include two species of large river terrapins: the mangrove terrapin ( Batagur baska, CR) and the painted terrapin ( Callagur borneoensis, CR). Both species inhabit creeks and estuaries and have been extirpated from large portions of their range. The hotspot is also home to several Endangered and Vulnerable species of tortoises and freshwater turtles.

4. Amphibians

The Sundaland hotspot is home to more than 240 species of amphibians, nearly 200 of which are endemic. Seven genera are endemic, including the slender toads ( Leptophryne, comprising two species), and three with single species: Pseudobufo, Phrynella, and Gastrophrynoides. The amphibian fauna of Sundaland remains extremely poorly known, and Sumatra, in particular, represents a very high research priority.

5.Freshwater Fishes

Nearly 200 species of fish have been discovered in the rivers, lakes and swamps of Sundaland in just the last decade. There are currently about 1,000 known species of freshwater fish in the hotspot (out of a projected 1,400), more than a quarter of which are restricted to one or more of the main islands. Once again, Borneo tops the list, with about 430 species, more than 160 of which are endemic. One of the best known fish species in the hotspot is the dramatic Asian bony tongue or golden arowana ( Scleropages formosus, EN), a highly prized aquarium fish that can sell for thousands of dollars per animal.

UN names Noosa a "biodiversity museum"

2007-09-26T01:47:00.000-07:00

NOOSA Shire has been named a "biodiversity museum" by the United Nations – the first such recognition of any site in Queensland.
The nomination recognises an environmentally sound balance between people and environmental protection.
It was also seized on by anti-amalgamation campaigners as further proof the shire should not be merged with its southern neighbours.
The nomination said the shire was "critical to maintaining overall biodiversity representation and quality in southeast Queensland".
"In order to conserve and use in a sustainable way the rich natural and cultural resources of the site, Noosa communities endeavour to manage urban growth in a sustainable manner and develop sustainable tourism strategies in the buffer and transition zones."
The anti-amalgamation group Friends of Noosa will now start a letter-writing campaign to Premier Anna Bligh, asking what she is doing to save the region.

DNA barcodes 'tackle disease, protect biodiversity'

2007-09-26T01:39:00.000-07:00

21 September 2007

A mosquito of the culex genus, which transmits West Nile virus

DNA 'barcoding' offers rapid and low cost ways to monitor human disease vectors and biodiversity in developing countries, scientists told a conference this week.

The comments came during the Second International Barcode of Life Conference in Taipei, Taiwan (18–20 September).

The technique identifies known species and records new ones by sequencing a specific, short area of mitochondrial DNA, previously identified and agreed by scientists.

This "barcode region" of mitochondrial DNA mutates at a rate fast enough to create differences between species, but slow enough to leave members of the same species with nearly identical barcodes. Species that divided recently or are still interbreeding can be difficult to separate using this method.

Comparing the sequence to all others in a database produces a picture of how similar the specimens are. The process takes a few hours and costs as little as US$2.

Yvonne-Marie Linton of the UK's Natural History Museum, and leader of the Mosquito Barcoding Initiative, told SciDev.Net that barcoding should help control mosquitoes carrying diseases like malaria, West Nile disease and dengue fever.

"Often only one or two mosquito species are capable of transmitting disease," she says.

"It is important to know exactly which these are and then we can tie this information in with the ecology of these species, work out where they breed and use larvicidal techniques to control the mosquitoes, not 'blanketly' spray all of them."

And Eldredge Bermingham, acting director of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama, says DNA barcoding helps to identify and protect tropical biodiversity. The Institute has collected many samples that are as yet unclassified and DNA barcoding lets non-experts help classify these cheaply.

"Barcoding efforts based in labs in Mexico, Brazil, Argentina and Panama are discovering new species, and providing geo-referenced data for informed conservation decisions," Bermingham told SciDev.Net.

But David Schindel, executive secretary of the Consortium for the Barcode of Life, based in Washington DC, United States, explains that barcoding's low cost reflects only the sequencing.

Building a reference library of barcode sequences is more expensive.

"Borrowing a book from a public library is free, but someone had to pay for writing and printing and buying the books in the library," he points out.

Balancing The Biodiversity Account

2007-09-24T23:48:00.000-07:00

Fall 2003

When you write a check for more money than you have in your account, the check bounces and you get a “nasty-gram” from the bank, which assesses a fee as a penalty for overdrawing. The solution? Refrain from writing checks until you can deposit more funds.

If only the answer to dwindling resources was always so simple. When natural resources—such as habitats and the species they support—are over-exploited, destroyed, or lost, they may be gone forever. We can’t make a new “deposit.” The resulting loss of biodiversity could lead to unknown and potentially catastrophic consequences for plant and animal species, for our environment, and ultimately for us. But how can people become informed and motivated enough to keep them from “overdrawing” our natural resources?

Ke Chung Kim has made a career of finding answers to this question. The entomologist and director of Penn State’s Center for BioDiversity Research believes that the only way to convince a public whose attitudes may be shaped by apathy, skepticism, or self-interest is to link the importance of biodiversity conservation to people’s everyday lives.

“Surveys show that fewer than 50 percent of people have even heard the term ‘biodiversity,’” Kim says. “Of those, only about 30 percent really know what it is. Many people think biodiversity only relates to the rainforests and has nothing to do with them. To grab people’s attention and help them understand the importance of biodiversity conservation, we have to find ways to make it relevant by connecting it to their daily lives.”

So Kim set out to create an educational publication that was attractive and readable. The 20-page publication, Biodiversity: Our Living World–Your Life Depends on It, is a primer packed with information, factoids, and illustrations about the natural world and the species that inhabit it.

The publication defines biodiversity as “the variety and variation of all species of plants, animals, fungi, and microbes, including their genetic makeup, their ecological roles, and their interrelationships in biological communities throughout the world ecosystems.” To move beyond this abstract definition and drive home the point of why biodiversity matters to you and me, Kim came up with the concept of a “biodiversity account,” the number of species needed to produce an item for human consumption or to maintain ecological services that support humans. The reader learns how multitudes of species interact to make possible the food we eat, the clothes we wear, and the houses in which we live.

“For example, let’s look at a hamburger dinner with French fries and apple pie for dessert,” Kim explains. “Obviously, to have ground beef, you need a cow. The hamburger bun requires wheat flour and yeast, which is a fungus. For French fries, you need potatoes and corn or soybean oil to fry them. To make ketchup, mustard, pickles, and other hamburger fixings you need additional plants and plant-derived spices. The apple pie filling contains sugar and one or more varieties of apples and spices, and the crust contains wheat flour and vegetable shortening.

“You might have 15 or 20 species just on your plate,” he continues. “But the cow might eat stored grain and several of 17 species of pasture plants, including grasses, legumes, and weeds. To grow apples, potatoes, and tomatoes you need pollinators, such as honey bees. All plants grow in ecosystems that depend on many species—such as insects, spiders, earthworms, fungi, and bacteria—for energy and nutrient cycling. Add it all up and the biodiversity account for this one meal might be more than 400 species.”

Kim’s publication contains several such examples. The number of tree species needed to build the average house? At least 50, and that doesn’t count the hundreds of species of fungi, bacteria, animals, and plants that support and depend on the forest ecosystems where those trees grow.

What about that tuna fish you ate for lunch yesterday? It ate mostly mackerels and herrings, which in turn fed on dozens of species of smaller fish, crustaceans, squids, worms, and plankton. Thus, the biodiversity account of tuna includes easily 50 species of animals as food. “If pollution or other human activities harm these marine species, tuna populations can suffer,” says Kim.

“The bottom line,” he says, “is that biodiversity is the basis upon which ecological systems operate. One or two species lost may not seem significant, but when a particular species that’s crucial to maintaining the system disappears, the system could malfunction and eventually collapse. We don’t know at what level of loss this will happen, and figuring that out is a challenge for science in the future. But we can’t wait until then. We may already have lost species that we didn’t even know existed. We need to figure out what we have and save as much as we can.”

Kim is involved in several efforts to do just that. Besides founding the Center for BioDiversity Research, he leads the Pennsylvania Invertebrates Biodiversity Project, a survey designed to identify as many invertebrate species as possible in the state. He has conducted biodiversity assessments for the National Park Service and for the Indiantown Gap National Guard Training Center. He is curator of Penn State’s Frost Entomological Museum, which is a source of important reference collections for biodiversity research related to arthropods, and he chairs the DMZ Forum, a group that has worked to maintain the Demilitarized Zone in his native Korea as a biodiversity preserve.

Kim also has been instrumental in building an infrastructure for biodiversity conservation policy within and across state government departments. Several state agencies provided funding and support for Biodiversity: Our Living World–Your Life Depends on It, and the Department of Environmental Protection has used the publication widely in its educational outreaches, including with K-12 classes in school districts around the state and in connection with 2002 Earth Day festivities.

In Kim’s mind, such public education is the first priority in the campaign to save our valuable biodiversity. “Unless the public understands what’s at stake, none of our other efforts will go very far.”

____________________________

Ke Chung Kim is professor of entomology, curator of the Frost Entomological Museum, and director of the Center for BioDiversity Research. Funding for Biodiversity: Our Living World–Your Life Depends on It was provided by the Pennsylvania Wild Resources Conservation Fund, with support from the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, the Pennsylvania Game Commission, and the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. It is available online at pubs.cas.psu.edu/freepubs/uf017.html.

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “BIODIVERSITY: SCIENCE AND GOVERNANCE”:

2007-09-24T23:47:00.000-07:00

The International Biodiversity Conference, organized by the French Ministry of Research, opened Monday at the headquarters of the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on the theme “Biodiversity: Science and Governance.” Participants heard opening statements in the morning, and convened in Plenary in the afternoon to consider challenges regarding biodiversity, science and governance.

OPENING SESSION

François d’Aubert, French Minister Delegate for Research, opened the Conference, and welcomed participants.

Noting the outcomes of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction, held prior to the Conference, Koïchiro Matsuura, UNESCO Director-General, highlighted the potential of healthy ecosystems in disaster reduction, and called for improved earth observation systems. He expressed hope that the UN Decade for Education for Sustainable Development will help connecting science and society. Advocating an ongoing dialogue between scientists and decision makers, he called for: additional research; involvement of the private sector and civil society, including local and indigenous communities; capacity building; and conflict prevention.

Klaus Toepfer, Executive Director of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), stressed the impact of biodiversity loss on humankind, and said preserving healthy ecosystems is crucial for achieving the Millennium Development Goals and implementing sustainable strategies for land use, industry and tourism. He stressed the interlinkages between climate change, desertification and biodiversity loss, and called for investments in capacity building and in coherent, coordinated and policy-relevant science.

Hamdallah Zedan, Executive Secretary of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), noted that despite increased recognition of biodiversity’s value, knowledge about biodiversity loss is limited. He highlighted the challenge faced by the international community to achieve the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss, and called for stronger international cooperation and effective communication on biodiversity loss and its effects.

Mohammed Valli Moosa, President of the World Conservation Union – IUCN, stressed direct links between biodiversity loss and human activities, warning that more than 15,000 species are threatened with extinction according to the IUCN Red List. He suggested a framework to put biodiversity at the center stage of human activities on the basis of four key elements: people around the world; science; regulations and laws at all levels; and the market force.

Bertrand Collomb, Chairman of Lafarge and the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, said the business sector has recognized the importance of sustainability and nature conservation and that biodiversity-related projects can improve a company’s public image. He stressed the need for partnerships, determination and consistency of actions, as well as the role of governments in setting appropriate frameworks for action.

Noting that good politics should be based on good science, Stavros Dimas, European Commissioner for the Environment, said the EU will continue to work on integrating environmental concerns into its policies and support funding for environment programmes, and stressed the need for increased action to achieve the 2010 target, prioritization and mobilizing support as well as building scientific capacity and better communicating scientific issues regarding biodiversity.

Nicolas Hulot, President of the Nicolas Hulot Foundation, said the Conference should aim at ensuring coherence among policies and actions rather than raising awareness. He noted that there is no conflict between various interests involved in biodiversity, and stressed the need for cooperation, placing society at the heart of concerns and actions, and new forms of solidarity.

Matsuura, on behalf of UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, stressed that biodiversity is essential to life, and called upon countries which have not already done so, to ratify the CBD. He said biodiversity conservation is not only the responsibility of governments, but also of non-governmental organizations, the private sector and all the Earth’s inhabitants.

Edward Wilson, Harvard University, said there is overwhelming scientific evidence of man’s adverse impact on biodiversity, much of which is still unknown to science. He reasoned that exploration and conservation are not only crucial, but also cost-effective and technically possible, and called for fact-based and ethical decision making. He stressed that poverty inhibits conservation, and cited that “man is defined not by what he creates, but by what he chooses not to destroy.”

Wangari Maathai, Assistant Minister for Environment and Natural Resources of Kenya, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate, reviewed lessons learned from two mountain ecosystems in Kenya with regard to biodiversity loss and its impacts on human societies, while emphasizing the success of rehabilitation through reforestation under governmental guidance. She said political will is the key in taking actions to conserve biodiversity.

Stating the importance of balancing economic development and conservation of natural resources, Abdullah Badawi, Prime Minister of Malaysia, highlighted crucial issues regarding biodiversity conservation, including: capacity building; a dialogue on biodiversity governance; negotiations of an access and benefit-sharing regime under the CBD; intellectual property rights; and implementation of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.

Marc Ravalomanana, President of the Republic of Madagascar, highlighted the importance of the Conference’s topics to his country, noting its biodiversity wealth. He stressed the need to reconcile the needs of rapid economic growth with those of preserving outstanding biological wealth, arguing that sustainable development, the protection of nature and good governance are interlinked. He noted gaps between North and South regarding scientific expertise.

Jacques Chirac, President of the French Republic, stressed that the human fate is bound to that of other species, and proposed creating an intergovernmental panel to assess trends in biodiversity and developing a worldwide network of experts. He noted that France has incorporated an Environment Charter in its Constitution, highlighted France’s biodiversity-related policies, and proposed hosting in Paris a high-level seminar on intellectual property rights as they relate to biodiversity. He stressed the need for urgent measures to achieve the 2010 target.

PLENARY

The first plenary session, chaired by Peter Raven, Missouri Botanical Garden, addressed challenges faced by science and governance with regard to biodiversity. The session included a roundtable.

Chair Raven noted that more is known about the moon than about the Earth’s rainforests, and called for more research and decisive steps, actions and strategies based on individual responsibility.

Jacques Blondel, French National Centre for Scientific Research, stressed that preserving biodiversity today will guarantee its evolutionary potential, and that the loss of biodiversity is irreversible. Noting that the Earth is currently experiencing a period of mass extinction, he said the challenge lies in determining how the loss of species affects their ecosystems, and in predicting how ecosystem functions and services will be affected by future extinctions. Noting that some irreversible thresholds have already been passed, he expressed hope that these predictions will positively influence decision making. Blondel said conserving biodiversity is an ethical question, and called for an integration of natural and human sciences. Stressing that economic development can only be sustainable in a well-functioning ecosystem, and that development cannot be sustainable when it is not shared, he concluded that we need to radically revise our way of life.

Michel Loreau, Chair of the Scientific Committee of the Conference, spoke on challenges regarding biodiversity. Addressing the question “why does biodiversity matter?”, he explained that humankind depends on biodiversity as a source of goods for direct use, ecosystem services, as well as natural heritage, aesthetic, spiritual, cultural and recreational values. He said scientific challenges include assessing: how much biodiversity there is on Earth; how and why biodiversity is changing; the ecological consequences of changes in biodiversity; and how we can best manage and protect biodiversity. Loreau explained that challenges for governance include: recognizing the importance of biodiversity as a global environmental issue; educating and informing citizens; developing coordinated research and supporting funding agencies; using available knowledge to take immediate action; integrating biodiversity conservation and sustainable use in social and economic development; and establishing an intergovernmental mechanism to synthesize scientific knowledge. He said a draft “Paris Appeal of Scientists in Favour of Biodiversity” will be circulated and finalized during the Conference.

Speaking about globalization of the economy and current biodiversity changes, Claude Martin, Director-General of WWF International, quoted a WWF report using the living planet index and humanity’s ecological footprint over the past 40 years to show that globalization has tremendous impacts on biodiversity. He underscored that, to address this challenge, governments need to set up long-term goals integrating environmental concerns into the development process. Martin also highlighted the need for a fundamental change in thinking. Regarding genetically modified organisms (GMOs), he said while GMOs might increase food production, without internationally established standards, they often pose risks to biodiversity. He commended a statement on the need for returning benefits to local and indigenous communities where scientific research results are generated.

Cristian Samper, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, said our knowledge of biodiversity has greatly expanded, but biodiversity is still declining. He noted that while most of the world’s biodiversity is found in developing countries, developed countries benefit most from it and have the knowledge and capacity to prevent biodiversity’s decline. He noted the challenge in using scientific knowledge regarding biodiversity’s response to change to recover species from the brink of extinction and prevent further degradation of ecosystems. He called for synergies between biodiversity-related conventions, and advocated increased attention to: coherence between global and national policies; effective monitoring and indicators; implementation and compliance; and access and benefit sharing. He called for clear rules for access, traceability and transparency, but cautioned against policies that become a barrier to biodiversity research. Regarding an intergovernmental panel for biodiversity, Samper proposed other ways to strengthen scientific input into the decision-making process, including: building bridges within the scientific community; seeking interlinkages with other topics; building national and regional capacity; investing in basic and policy-relevant science; and strengthening existing mechanisms, such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Highlighting the amount of information gathered in natural history museums worldwide, he said museums’ responsibilities include: mobilizing information contained in collections and literature through mechanisms such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility; generating new knowledge through research; developing education and outreach; and building capacity and collaboration for biodiversity with an emphasis on countries of origin.

Roundtable Chair Robert Watson, World Bank, invited panelists to focus on the greatest challenge to a sustainable use of biodiversity, whether biodiversity conservation can be reconciled with rapid economic growth, and reasons for discrepancies between civil society’s care about nature and destruction of it.

Jean-François Dehecq, President of Sanofi-Aventis, outlined steps and issues associated with discovering and exploiting natural compounds for developing drugs, noting that therapeutic progress may be undermined by the fact that patenting of biodiversity still remains unresolved at the international level.

Maathai said the greatest challenge is to convince decision makers and society that biodiversity is a priority, stressing that in spite of the fact that humans are better informed than 30 years ago, they continue destroying species with the prospect of their own destruction. She recalled that the consequences of current destruction will be experienced by future generations.

Russell Mittermeier, President of Conservation International, noted that France has the world’s largest number of hotspots. He said megadiverse countries and biodiversity hotspots should be priorities for action to achieve the 2010 target, and stressed the role of protected areas in conserving biodiversity.

Harison Randriarimanana, Minister of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries of Madagascar, stated that it is possible to reconcile biodiversity conservation with rapid economic growth and poverty alleviation in countries like Madagascar. However, he said this will not happen unless people living in poverty, decision makers and scientists are brought together for action.

Wilson stressed the role of education in bridging the gap between science, policy and the public for biodiversity conservation, and said lack of an ethical code and moral standards for human activities are one of the reasons why human actions tend to compromise nature.

World Food Day 2004 Highlights the Importance of Biodiversity to Global Food Security

2007-09-24T23:44:00.000-07:00

WASHINGTON and ROME, Oct. 15 /PRNewswire/ -- Biological diversity is one
of the keys to ending world hunger, Dr. Jacques Diouf, Director-General of the
UN Food and Agriculture Organization said today.
He was speaking at a ceremony marking World Food Day 2004, which falls on
the anniversary of the foundation of FAO in 1945 and is observed in Rome and
in some 150 countries around the world. This year's World Food Day theme is:
"Biodiversity for Food Security."
"Our planet abounds with life and it is this great diversity that holds
one of the keys to ending hunger," Dr. Diouf told high-ranking officials and
representatives from FAO Member States, international organizations, other UN
agencies, NGOs, civil society and farmers' groups.
In his address, he underlined the need to maintain biodiversity in nature
and on farms to ensure to all people a sustainable access to enough
diversified and nutritious food.
"But we are also raising an alarm," he added. "FAO estimates that about
three-quarters of the genetic diversity of agricultural crops has been lost
over the last century. Just 12 crops and 14 animal species now provide most
of the world's food."

A key to survival
"For many rural families, the sustainable use of local biodiversity is
their key to survival. It allows them to exploit marginal lands and ensure a
minimum level of food production even when faced with extremely harsh
conditions," Dr. Diouf said.
"Global food security depends not just on protecting the world's genetic
resources, but also on ensuring that these resources remain available to all,"
he pointed out.
"Preserving the world's agricultural biodiversity needs to be viewed as a
joint effort involving farmers, commercial plant breeders and the scientific
community," the FAO Director-General also said.
In his keynote speech, World Food Day 2004 special guest President Ferenc
Madl of Hungary said: "The international community should spare no effort to
implement the Millennium Development Goals for the benefit of all."
Mr. Madl called on all countries to "create conditions to facilitate
access to genetic resources for environmentally sound uses."
He also said that his country, which was among the countries that welcomed
and ratified the FAO International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food
and Agriculture, is "a leading place in Central Europe to breed traditional
and new plant varieties."
The Treaty, which entered into force this year, is a binding international
instrument that secures the conservation and sustainable utilization of the
world's agricultural genetic diversity. It guarantees that farmers and
breeders have access to genetic materials they need and it also ensures that
farmers receive a fair and equitable share of the benefits derived from their
work.

Message from the Pope
A message on the importance of biodiversity from Pope John Paul II was
read by Monsignor Renato Volante, Permanent Observer of the Holy See to FAO.
The Pope stated that the World Food Day observances contribute to liberate
humanity from the scourge of hunger and malnutrition.
Statements were also delivered in succession, by Mr. Paolo Scarpa Bonazza
Buora, Italy's Undersecretary of State for Agricultural and Forestry Policies,
Mr. Edouard Saouma, former Director-General of FAO, and Mr. Mamadou Cissokho,
Honorary President of the Network of Peasant Organizations and Producers of
West Africa and of the National Council of Senegal for Dialogue and Rural
Cooperation.
Dr. Diouf awarded a special FAO Medal to his predecessor, Mr. Saouma, and
World Food Day 2004 Medals to the three first prize winners of the World Food
Day poster competition, organized by the United Nations Women's Guild.
During the same ceremony, Dr. Diouf introduced the newly appointed FAO
Goodwill Ambassador, Italian ballerina Carla Fracci, who is considered one of
the greatest classical dancers of the 20th century. Carla Fracci is now
Director of the Balletto dell'Opera of Rome.
FAO Goodwill Ambassadors are distinguished women and men of talent who,
through their work and in their daily lives, help to focus global attention on
the need to free the world from hunger and poverty.
A musical presentation followed. Internationally renowned Albanian
violonist Anyla Kraja performed "Schindler's list" by J. Williams, while
Angolan singer and dancer Tasha Rodrigues and her musical group performed two
songs from her last CD "Kyra Kyra."

Farmers' event
During World Food Day's observance at FAO headquarters, a farmers' event
also took place as well as a civil society forum. For the first time on World
Food Day, farmers from different parts of the world had a chance to speak
about their experience in enhancing biodiversity and increasing food
production in a sustainable way.
Elsewhere, various events were organized to celebrate World Food Day's
theme. In the United States, sponsored by the U.S. National Committee for
World Food Day, hundreds of WFD teleconference sites were set up at colleges
and at U.S. Embassies across the world. Some colleges organized a week-long
observance.
In Sweden, substantive seminars for parliamentarians, the media and the
scientific community were organized. A conference on the importance of
biodiversity took place in Stockholm and a scientific seminar on biological
diversity was organized today at the University of Agriculture, in Uppsala.
In India, essay competitions were organized in schools in Delhi. In
several European and Middle Eastern capitals, schoolchildren competed in
drawing contests on biodiversity and food security

Biodiversity of the coastal zone

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An example of activities aimed at the conservation of biological diversity within the coastal zone is the 'Yuntolovsky' reserve in North West Russia. The reserve is located in the North West part of the city of St Petersburg, and borders the Finnish Bay in the south. The rivers of the Yuntolovka and Kamenka are in the West and East. For a number of years this coastal area was located within the limits of Saint-Petersburg and has been central in the conflict of interests between urban developers, industrial enterprises, yacht clubs and owners of cottage plots.

The Yuntolovsky is a continuation of the natural coastal belt in the East and plays an important role in conservation of coastal landscapes in the eastern part of the Finnish Bay and the water area of the Lakhtinsky Bay, which is the habitat of rare species of flora, birds and fish breeding grounds. The whole area of the Lakhtinsky Bay represents a unique natural phenomenon: spring marshes, black alder swamps, habitat of rare flora species, such as honeywort have been included in the Red Book.

History

In the early 20s scientists and experts paid attention to this unique territory and came up with an initiative to create a natural reserve. However, for a variety of reasons, it wasn't until the early 90s that the possibility for implementation of this idea presented itself.

During 1990-1991, a number of Resolutions issued by the Board of Leningrad Council of People's Deputies, led to the creation of Yuntolovsky reserve and the establishment of its temporary borders. The Resolutions also recommended that the Executive Committee undertake a number of specific actions aimed at encouraging the organization of the reserve, but this was never taken forward.

In 1996, the Directorate for Environment Protection within the Saint-Petersburg administration, and European Union Coastal Protection Division entered an agreement on development of the Management Plan with respect to the Yuntolovsky reserve. There was a considerable experience gained by European countries in the field of organisation and management of natural territories subject to a specific protection approach.

Managment plan
The preparation and implementation of the Management Plan represented a practical step towards sustainable important principles specified in various international documents on sustainable development that were adopted development of the city, as it took into account a range of very in Rio de Janeiro in 1992:
Conservation of biological diversity The territory of Yuntolovsky reserve being part of the Baltic flyway of migrating birds, their camping and feeding place, has gained significant importance at international level. Many flora and fauna species have now been entered into the Red Book of the Baltic Region and Russia:

conservation of wetlands;
conservation of water resources- restoration and conservation of the reserve, which is directly linked to the Finnish Bay, facilitates improving the ecological conditions of water area in the Baltic region;
resolution of social issues - the above mentioned territory is used for recreational purposes encouraging creation of employment opportunities;
development of ecological education of the population - The Management Plan stipulated the use of the territory for the purpose of scientific research by 2002 and was marked by the establishment of an informational ecological centre incorporating a nature museum available to students, school children and the adult population as part of an education programme.
The major objective of the Yungolovsky Reserve Management Plan is to achieve the set tasks and create optimal conditions for the natural territory and the city to co-exist together in the best way.

A number of parallel studies were also carried out in the new state of the territory. This later provided grounds for formulating proposals and finalizing a legal procedures for establishing borders of the reserve with the approval of the governor of Saint-Petersburg. An administration was set up to supervise the natural territories of the city, subject to a specific protection approach.

Yungolovsky Ecological Centre

In 1997, the residents of the Primorsky administrative district within Saint-Petersburg where the Yuntolovsky reserve is located, prepared and approved the District Agenda for the 21st century. The latter places particular focus on plans in respect to conservation of biological diversity in the district and development of the reserve. The residents of the district established their own public organization called the 'Yungolovsky Ecological Centre'. They were committed to resolve the issues of improving the territory of the reserve and adjacent areas, as well as promoting ecological awareness. The Centre is now open and conducting training courses on conservation issues including biological diversity. The Centre also arranges excursions on the territory of the reserve and organizes seminars and workshops on the problems associated with conservation of nature and development of ecological tourism.

Visitors to the centre take an active part in numerous activities aimed at improving the territory surrounding the reserve and restoring plant growth in its buffer zone that has been damaged as a result of intensive development in the district.

In 1999, an ornithological tower was placed on the border of the reserve providing free access to the public. Information stands were put up along the perimeter of the territory highlighting details such as the borders of the reserve, its biological value and code of behaviour that had to be observed. The ecological park offers nature walks, recreational facilities and informational materials.

GIS

In 2002, with the assistance of the Danish Agency for Environment Protection, a geographical information system was developed to provide a way of monitoring the preserve condition. This enables one to identify the most topical issues with respect to its development. Hence, as a result of monitoring activities undertaken over the last few years, some reduction in the productivity of the available feeding resources for the waterfowl has been observed on the territory of the Lakhtinsky Bay. This triggered the development of the restoration programme. The programme for restoration of shoal waters has been prepared for the northern part of the Lakhtinsky Bay. The latter was damaged as a result of hydrotechnical works, performed on the rivers flowing into the Bay. Apart from the involvement of the local industrial enterprises who are financing such works, their operation has been made a subject of stringent control. This comes from the point of view of nature-orientated bodies in the city, as a measure to try and protect this unique territory from possible adverse effects.

Biodiversity partnership

2007-09-24T23:41:00.000-07:00

Defenders of Wildlife has long been a leader in the conservation of wolves and other endangered species. While Defenders takes great pride in that work, the organization's mission is to protect all native wildlife in its natural habitat and to secure biodiversity throughout the country, not only in places with large expanses of protected land and populations of large predators. As communities grow and their borders expand, Defenders' mission has led the organization to examine the land use planning process and its effect on wildlife outside of parks, preserves and refuges.

Biodiversity has been defined as "the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that keep them functioning, yet ever changing and adapting" (Noss and Cooperrider 1994). That diversity is essential to the biological processes that sustain life. The quality of the air we breathe, the water we drink, the soil we cultivate, the plants and animals we depend on for food and fiber, and the landscape we enjoy for recreation — the fundamentals of our civilization, economy, and health all depend on biodiversity.

Habitat loss is now the most significant threat to biodiversity. As many other reports and scientific papers have shown, the loss, degradation and alteration of habitat are the primary factors responsible for the worldwide decline in numbers of wild animals and plants. While many people think habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity are problems confined to exceptionally species-rich areas like the tropics, they are very real problems here in the United States. Uncontrolled growth, often referred to as "sprawl", plagues communities across the country. It permanently fragments contiguous habitat into marginal pieces of land. Habitat loss and diminishing biodiversity may be the most urgent environmental problems we now face.

In December 2000, to help draw attention to the importance of biodiversity, problems caused by habitat loss, and the potential role of land use planning in solving the current conservation crisis, the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation awarded a grant to Defenders of Wildlife, NatureServe, the Environmental Law Institute and Island Press. The Duke Foundation asked the four groups, together known as the Consortium on Biodiversity and Land Use, to examine the interaction of biodiversity, habitat protection and land use planning in a program of research, publishing, and public outreach.

To investigate the vital role conservation planning can play in connecting land use planning and biodiversity preservation, and as part of work funded by the Duke Foundation grant, Defenders of Wildlife sponsored a two-day workshop at the Wye River Conference Center in Queenstown, Maryland from February 28 to March 1, 2002. The workshop brought together over three dozen state and local land use planners, government officials, and representatives of conservation organizations from around the country, who are all involved in innovative efforts to integrate biodiversity and land use planning at the state, regional and/or local level. This report describes their discussions and the broad range of views expressed at the workshop.

One of the goals of the workshop and this report is to help promote comprehensive conservation planning by stimulating interest in ecosystem-based land use plans designed to facilitate environmental restoration, protect and conserve wildlife habitat and other natural resources. Workshop participants agreed that conservation planning presents an opportunity to make the United States' approach to conservation more proactive. Given the importance of preserving natural habitats and biodiversity, the information and insights gathered at the workshop will be relevant to communities throughout the country.

Biodiversity at Risk
The world is now in the midst of an extinction crisis. Many species have been driven to the brink of extinction or beyond, and we are in danger of losing much of the biodiversity that has made our quality of life possible. According to The Nature Conservancy and NatureServe, more than 6,700 animal and plant species in the United States are vulnerable to extinction (Stein et al. 2000). The federal Endangered Species Act currently lists only about 1,300 of those species as endangered or threatened. Losing these species could severely affect the diversity of life and the biological processes on which all living things, including humans, depend.

Populations of some species protected by the Endangered Species Act are rising, but many others are not. In 1996, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reported to Congress that, despite protection under the Endangered Species Act and other laws, less than 40 percent of listed species are stable or improving. Nearly 30 percent of those listed in the early 1970s with the Act's inception continue to decline (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1996).

Preventing extinction and preserving species' ecological roles requires protection of their natural habitats. The most significant threat to biodiversity now lies in the loss, degradation and fragmentation of the habitats animals and plants need to survive (Wilcove et al. 2000). According the Natural Resources Conservation Service's Natural Resources Inventory, an estimated 2.2 million acres of land are lost to development in the United States each year (Natural Resources Conservation Service 2000). The Department of the Interior reports that more than half the nation's wetlands have been filled since the American Revolution (Dahl 1990). In the Tucson area of Arizona alone, an estimated 6,400 acres of Sonoran Desert are now being converted to human use annually. A 1995 analysis by Defenders of Wildlife identified 69 ecosystems in the United States that had lost 85 percent or more of their acreage to development over the last three centuries (Noss and Peters 1995). Other studies indicate that only 42 percent of U.S. lands remain covered with natural vegetation (Bryer et al. 2000).

Parks and preserves help protect natural habitats, but they are scattered throughout the country with few natural landscape linkages between them. Most protected areas are also found at high elevations, or on biologically unproductive lands that tend to harbor fewer species than those at lower elevations (Scott et al. 2001). These low-elevation, biologically diverse areas are also attractive for development.

The Need for Conservation Planning
The federal Endangered Species Act is the most powerful regulatory tool for protecting individual species and natural habitats in the United States. The Endangered Species Act prohibits taking, killing or otherwise harming species that have been officially listed as endangered or threatened, and calls for protection of habitat critical to their survival. But the Endangered Species Act has been used to protect species only after their numbers have dropped to perilously low levels. Waiting until populations of the species reach the brink of extinction reduces their chances for successful recovery and such reactive, urgent rescue operations usually require intensive management and habitat restoration. This kind of last-minute regulatory action is also often extremely expensive and contentious.

Over the last decade, in an attempt to protect endangered species and their habitats on non-federal lands, habitat conservation plans have been adopted as a provision of the Endangered Species Act. Under 1982 amendments to the Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service can approve habitat conservation plans that allow the destruction or alteration of habitat for listed species in one area in exchange for conservation measures that protect those species and their habitat elsewhere. Habitat conservation plans represent a pragmatic advance in endangered species protection, but few plans are designed to preserve a full range of species over an extended area, let alone an entire region. Too many plans, especially the early ones, deal only with one or two endangered species, small parcels of land, and a limited number of landowners.

Recently, a number of habitat conservation plans that seek to protect many species and large areas of land have been undertaken at the state and regional level. In southern California, for example, multi-species conservation plans have been adopted for large portions of San Diego and Orange counties. Similar plans are underway in other California counties, as well as in Arizona and Nevada. While such multi-species plans represent progress in conservation, they are often not integrated well with local land use planning.

Experience suggests that a more comprehensive, refined, and proactive approach is needed to protect large areas that support whole communities of wildlife and other natural resources. Conservation should be initiated to prevent species from becoming endangered or threatened, rather than begun only when their numbers have declined to the point where emergency protection and recovery is required. Ultimately, preserving entire ecosystems cost less, give landowners, wildlife biologists, and land use managers greater flexibility, and reduce conflicts between conservation and economic interests.

Linking state or regional conservation planning with local land use planning is one way to achieve a more comprehensive approach to habitat and biodiversity preservation. Some states and communities have already begun to do so, but to secure the nation's biodiversity and to make habitat conservation work comprehensively across the landscape, more plans that integrate wildlife conservation and local land use planning are needed.

Conservation planning offers a powerful way to address the needs of wild animals and plants while incorporating the goals of biodiversity and habitat preservation into state, regional and/or local planning processes. With conservation planning, the needs of wild animals and plants, and the human community can be considered concurrently. Such planning can help identify where to locate new housing developments, transportation corridors, and business sites so that natural habitats, aquatic resources, open space, and wildlife will be protected and conserved. To be effective, comprehensive conservation plans should be designed on a landscape-scale as much as possible, and include active community involvement.

Promoting Comprehensive Conservation Planning
In a proactive effort to protect endangered species, a number of state agencies, local and regional governments, and conservation groups have initiated comprehensive conservation planning processes. Five states — Florida, Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey and Oregon — have undertaken large-scale conservation assessments. Seven other states have begun to draft assessments, and others have expressed interest in drafting plans in the near future (see status map on the next page).

Although these states' assessments differ in approach, scope and methodology, all recognize the connection between conservation and land use planning, and that these disciplines can be used in a complementary fashion to help preserve biodiversity and natural habitats. This is particularly true in urbanizing landscapes where land use planning tends to focus and is most influential.

The few existing statewide conservation assessments use habitat and species information compiled by various government and private groups. Among these sources of information are the individual state's natural heritage programs. Initiated by The Nature Conservancy more than 25 years ago, these programs catalogue inventories of each state's wild animals, plants and plant communities. The Nature Conservancy has also begun to develop ecoregional plans, using ecological boundaries defined by environmental conditions such as moisture and solar radiation, and characteristic assemblages of species and habitats (Groves et al. 2000) to define 80 ecoregions within the United States. Each plan will feature conservation sites containing native plant and animal communities representative of the ecoregion's biodiversity and provide habitat for the region's "at risk" species.

To assist state fish and wildlife agencies in developing and implementing statewide conservation plans Federal funds are available through the Department of Interior's State Wildlife Grants Program. As of 2001, this program was funded at $80 million per year. To be eligible for these grants, a state fish and wildlife agency must agree to complete a comprehensive wildlife conservation plan by October 2005, and have the federal funds matched by nonfederal funds at a level of twenty-five percent for planning activities, and fifty percent for plan implementation. The State Wildlife Grants program, along with the information compiled by The Nature Conservancy and others, puts state and local land use planners in a good position to undertake comprehensive conservation planning.

However many state and local planners remain unaware of conservation plans or how to integrate them with local land use planning. Consequently, existing conservation strategies, local land use plans and related decision-making processes are not often connected effectively. Historically, local planning has not addressed habitat conservation systematically, and conservation groups and wildlife agencies have not always used land use planning processes effectively for habitat protection, hence opportunities to protect biodiversity and conserve habitat have often been missed. Even so called "smart growth" plans have often failed to include specifically designated wildlife habitats

Russian Biodiversity

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Although not as rich in numbers of different plant species as the tropical forests, Russian taiga forests are home to upwards of 3000 known vascular plant species. In particular, the Ussuri taiga region containing the Sikhote-Alin mountain range in the Russian Far East has been designated as an IUCN Center for Plant Biodiversity. On Sakhalin Island in the Pacific, the shear number of plant species found in the temperate forests surpasses any other known biodiversity hotspot within the same ecological system. Due to its location, the southern portions of the Russian Far East escaped the massive ice sheets of the last glaciations, providing a refuge for species immigrating from northern territories.

Amur Tiger found in the Russian Far East (P. Schlesinger)
This unique bio-geologic history has created an unusual assemblage of flora and fauna, including Amur Tigers, Amur Leopards, musk deer, and Himalayan bears, with brown bears, reindeer and salmon (World Bank, Russia: Forest Policy During Transition, 1997). In addition, the Kamchatka Peninsula is home to the world’s largest spawning grounds for Pacific Salmon, supported by a dwindling conifer forest. The worlds largest population of brown bears lives along these rivers. Often compared the Yellowstone National Park in the United States, Kamchatka houses a fragile set of ecosystems threatened by resource extraction. Specifically, large-scale mining and gas and oil exploration has increased throughout this entire region over the past 5 years. In addition to mineral and oil reserves, Kamchatka is set directly along the Pacific ring of fire and home to over 300 volcano's of which 29 are known to be active.

Locations of High Biodiversity in Russia

Further west towards the heart of Siberia, Lake Baikal holds 20% of the world's fresh water resources. As the deepest fresh water body on the planet, over 23,000 km3 of water escapes through a single river: the Angara. The flora and fauna of the surrounding ecosystems contrasts starkly with the fact that Lake Baikal is home to more than 1500 species, 80% of which are endemic to that particular environment. The province of Buryatia struggles to protect these natural systems from the on-going construction of oil and gas pipelines heading east and south towards China.

Manchurian Walnut Tree in the Russian Far East (T. Stone )
Moving away from Siberia towards the more densely populated regions of European Russia, the Ural Mountains provide a natural barrier to eastward settlement expansion. Along the northern stretches of this range lies the largest unfragmented old growth forests left in Russia. Designated the Komi Virgin Forests by UNESCO World Heritage Committee, 3.3 million hectares of spruce, pine, larch, and fir forests lies protected from major advancements in extractive logging, gold mining, oil exploration and poaching. These northern taiga and sub-tundra ecosystems cover the largest swath of terrestrial earth, encompassing most of northern Eurasia. Within Komi lives a struggling indigenous population surviving off of some of the largest reindeer herds found on the continent. In addition, mushroom picking and berry gathering supplements the local economy.

Finally, the region west of the Ural Mountains, European Russia, is home to the vast majority of Russians. More developed, and rich in culture, Russia struggles to protect some of the last intact ecosystems scattered throughout this region. This is a very brief overview of the major biological hot-spots scattered throughout this massive country. With such a distinct representation of biological diversity, it is the responsibility of Russia with the international community to maintain these ecosystems as gems of our evolutionary

Value of Biodiversity

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Why is biological diversity important? Many arguments can be made from scientific, philosophical, economic, ethical, and aesthetic perspectives. Scientists argue that much remains to be learned about many species and ecosystems around the world and that the loss of these species would foreclose that opportunity. Certain rare species are singled out as worth saving for their sake; the loss of the Sumatran tiger, for example, or the rhinocerous would be mourned by many who have never seen these animals in the wild. There is great beauty in forests, coral reefs, savannahs, and other landscapes that is worth preserving for future generations, as well as our own, to appreciate.

Natural resources also provide critical ecosystem services. Forests retain moisture in the soil and prevent erosion; hillside areas can be subject to mudslides where forests are cleared, resulting in loss of life and property. Of the approximately 1.4 million species that are known, almost one million are insects and other invertebrates, and these are, as E.O. Wilson has said, “the little things that run the world” by breaking down plant and animal matter and making it available as nutrients. Crop and forest lands provide food and wood for shelter and sustenance. The interactions between the living and the non-living parts of the environment provide essential ecosystems services of soil formation, climate control, and water recycling. In one study, published in 1997 in the science journal Nature, researchers estimated the value of these ecosystem services at between $16 trillion and $54 trillion a year.

Arguments for increased international efforts to conserve habitats and ecosystems often emphasize the value of biodiversity to humans: the "un-mined riches" that we may discover in plants and animals and the potential of new food sources. For example, approximately 25 percent of all prescription drugs in the United States are derived from plants. The rosy periwinkle from Madagascar is the source of a drug used in the treatment of Hodgkin's disease and leukemia. The Pacific yew tree is the source of Taxol, a drug which has been found effective in treatment of ovarian cancer. Some drugs found have been identified through native folklore. Peruvian Indians, for example, treated malaria with an extract from the bark of the Cinchona tree. Study of this extract led to discovery and use of quinine. the first effective treatment for malaria.

The potential for discovering medicines is often cited as an argument for international cooperation in preserving tropical forests, but also as a means for doing so, by finding useful products that can be extracted profitably from the plants and animals of the rainforest, through bioprospecting. For example, Glaxo Wellcome, a British pharmaceutical company, funds the Centre for Natural Products Research in Singapore, which surveys species in Asia for medicinal purposes. Conservation International has initiated an agreement between Bristol-Meyers Squib, Suriname, and the National Institutes of Health.

There are concerns about bioprospecting, however. Some developing countries maintain that they will not receive a sufficient portion of the profits from drugs developed from plants found within their borders. On the other hand, the costs of isolating useful species, developing drugs and other products, and testing them for use is enormously expensive, and those costs are borne by the drug companies.

What Lies Ahead?

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The population of the Earth will likely double by the year 2050, resulting in a world of at least 10 billion people, the largest number of whom, by far, will live in tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, and South America. These are as well the regions in greatest need of economic development, and the twin pressures of population growth and economic expansion can only increase the demands on biological resources. We can anticipate an ever-increasing competition among different uses of the available land, and the maintenance of biodiversity may not rank high in the face of other, more obvious demands.

Many of the existing policies of our own country that have been enacted to preserve biodiversity have been focused on threatened species, or to preserve striking or unique ecosystems, such as Yellowstone National Park. The Endangered Species Act, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, and our system of National Parks will continue to help in preserving biodiversity. But there are other areas of public policy that are as useful and important. In fact, it may well be that lands and waters that are necessarily exploited for their natural resources will hold the key for practical strategies to maintain biodiversity, for parks and preserves, alone, are inadequate for the task.

In truth, much that happens to preserve or decrease biodiversity arises through secondary effects of policies that are enacted for other reasons. Fisheries policies that aim to maintain fishery harvests; forestry policies that seek to maximize the economic yield of marketable timber; agricultural policies that maintain subsidies for keeping land in production that might be used for other beneficial purposes; and policies for the management of public lands that encourage overgrazing by maintaining artificially low grazing fees all have important negative effects on biodiversity, although not by design.

Other existing policies have impacts that work in the other direction. But unless the impacts on biodiversity of private acts or public policies are understood, and until there exists a broader consensus regarding the relative value of biodiversity, there is little hope, in this or any country, of holding the line at the levels that are needed for almost any use or service. We all need to be more aware of the direct benefits, indirect benefits, services, and future potential that biodiversity offers for both private gain and public benefit. We need greater awareness and coordination of policies that affect biodiversity, and national goals that go deeper than the protection of endangered species and the preservation of public parks.

From an economic perspective, much more work needs to be done to put a fair and meaningful valuation on biodiversity. The service aspects of biodiversity must be understood, and market mechanisms put in place to include these very real factors in both policy and business decisions.

From a scientific perspective, we need to learn more, and more quickly, about the role that biodiversity plays in the working of ecosystems. Gaps in our present knowledge of these connections now limit our assessments of the risks imposed when biodiversity declines, and preclude more complete economic evaluations.

In all of this, calls will be heard to defer action until we have in hand a more complete and reliable inventory of the present extent and variety of life on Earth, in terms of the number of species of plants and animals. Although counting must go on, it is now clear that waiting to learn the full extent of biodiversity before acting to stem so precipitous a decline is not a prudent choice, for both ecological and economic reasons.

Last, but certainly not least, are the issues of stewardship and ethics. In the long run, we must be concerned about maintaining the capability of the biological world to adapt, through adjustment and evolution, to changes in the physical environment. In addition, many would agree that as a society we bear the ethical obligation to protect the habitability of the planet, and to act as responsible stewards of its biological riches for the present and future welfare of the human species. To do that requires an appreciation of the value of biodiversity--both what it provides for the natural world and the ways that we can use it--and a commitment to preserve it so that our children and their children will continue to realize the benefits of a biologically rich Earth. Surely such a challenge demands the attention of scholars and policy-makers alike.

The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services

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The economic value of ecosystem services is difficult to calculate, and this raises several important problems when we look at biodiversity in the context of public policy. How can we measure the economic value of ecosystem services such as water purification, or resistance to environmental disturbances? Since the maintenance of biodiversity involves choices and ultimately, costs, how can markets reflect and distribute these values appropriately?

The task may be somewhat easier in the case of new products and materials that are derived from the natural world. Prospecting for new pharmaceuticals is the most publicized, but not the only example. New food crops are also a possibility, although to date there have been very few such introductions that have achieved more than regional importance, either dietarily or economically. More intriguing, perhaps, is the use of genetic engineering to extract biochemical processes from the natural world. Research of this kind has found application in biological clean-up, or bioremediation of toxic waste and oil spills. An even more promising and somewhat more controversial opportunity is found in harnessing processes at the most fundamental levels of biological structure.

The pool of resources hidden in the genetic resources of living things is potentially huge. An example is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that is used in genetic research and in commercial applications to manipulate DNA. The ready availability of substances that speed up the rate at which the cells replicate--the catalysts that in living matter are proteins known as enzymes--has literally made genetic engineering practical on industrial scales.

The enzymes used to catalyze PCR were first isolated from bacteria that can survive only in high temperatures, and the source from which they were taken was natural hot springs in Yellowstone National Park. In this case, to say that an entire new industry depended on the diversity of organisms and habitats in the National Park system is no exaggeration. Substantial prospecting is now underway in these and other extreme environments to find enzymes that will catalyze other, industrially-useful reactions

The Services that Biodiversity Provides

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Assessments of the economic benefits of biological diversity have been based primarily on our ability to generate revenue from biodiversity, through activities that produce measurable results in current markets, such as pharmaceuticals or tourism. But there are additional benefits from biodiversity that are not so easily included in commercial market analyses, and that come under the name of ecosystem services. These are the end results of natural biological processes that either improve the overall quality of the environment, or provide some benefit to the human users of the landscape--such as improvement of water quality and reduction of flooding. The concept of ecosystem services is unabashedly tilted toward human uses.

The study of ecosystem services is relatively new, but what is known points consistently in one direction: maintaining diversity on a variety of levels of ecological and biological organization--within forests, or among the trees that are there, or even within the genes of a single variety---is critical if services are to be maintained on a sustainable basis.

Ecosystem services can be provided in a variety of forms. One example is the purification of water that generally occurs by flowing through forested ecosystems and wetlands, which is an extremely important function from the standpoint of human populations that live downstream. The presence of living vegetation provides an efficient sink for many atmospheric pollutants as well. The regulation of stream flow by vegetation in the upper reaches of watersheds has long been recognized as an important ecosystem service, and watershed managers manipulate both the amount and type of vegetation in watersheds to help control sedimentation, floods, and sometimes stream flow.

The services that ecosystems provide often depend on the underlying physical structure of the habitat, such as the conditions for feeding and breeding that may be needed for the continued survival of an important animal species. What is often required is a diversity of habitats over an entire landscape. Ecosystem services may also depend on the presence of a particular species, as is the case in highly co-evolved plant-pollinator systems, or in highly managed agroecosystems that rely on specific pollinators, such as honeybees.

Biodiversity also plays an important role in maintaining ecosystem services over long periods of time, through the ups and downs of natural variations. Ecosystems that have lost either genetic or species diversity are less resistant to the effects of environmental perturbations, such as droughts, and are slower to recover when disturbed. Diversity is a form of ecosystem health insurance: those ecosystems that include several species that serve the same or similar functions tend to be more resistant to environmental stress and recover faster from perturbations.

The Loss of Species

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Species extinctions have received the lion's share of the attention in debates regarding biodiversity and the need to sustain it. The loss of individual species in ecosystems, such as frogs in wetlands or ferns in a forest, can certainly affect the ways in which those systems work together to cycle essential nutrients and water and process energy. Since we have only limited ability to predict how ecosystems will respond in terms of replacement or built-in redundancy to the possible loss of a specific species, there is some reason to be concerned when any are threatened by extinction.

At the same time, the same degree of concern should apply to reductions in the populations of species, even if they are not reduced to disappearance altogether. The role that classes of organisms play in ecosystems depends not only on what they do in terms of material cycling and energy flow, but on how many are there to do it. Reductions in abundance of an essential species can clearly affect overall system functioning, and therefore the degree to which ecosystem services will continue to be provided.

Some, known as keystone species, play a role in ecosystems that seems out of proportion to their number, such that even small changes in their abundance may have great impacts on the ecosystems in which they live. A common example is the sea- otter, a marine mammal that lives along the coasts of the northern Pacific Ocean. They dive and prey on sea-urchins that principally feed, in turn, on large seaweed called kelp. When sea-otters are present, the number of urchins is kept sufficiently low that stands of kelp--which are of commercial value as a source of potash and iodine--can become established and thrive. When otters vanish from the scene, the resulting growth in urchin populations effectively prevents the plant's successful regeneration, and eventually leads to the loss of kelp forests.

In time, all classes of living things--like the dinosaurs, or, we must presume, our own species--must face extinction. But the disappearance of any of them is a critical endpoint, marking the end of 3.5 billion years of evolutionary development. In Nature it represents a permanent depletion of biodiversity and a loss of genetic information on which evolution is based. In terms of people and nations, it counts as a loss of potential economic value in terms of services or products. Each species is a reservoir of unique genetic information that cannot be reproduced once it is gone. In this broader sense, any extinction, however trivial it may seem, represents a permanent loss to the biosphere as a whole.

What we need to know for informed policy decisions are the ecosystem services that a threatened species provides; the degree to which it offers opportunities for direct economic benefit; how expected benefits weigh against costs of preservation; and on a more general level, how present or expected rates of extinction compare to what might be expected through natural changes. The telling questions are whether and by how much the present rate of species loss differs from the rate that Nature would exact, were we not here, and whether the species that are lost play important keystone roles. The challenge is that this sort of information is only rarely available. Nor do we have, as yet, a predictive theory of keystone species.

Rates of loss
The UNEP Global Biodiversity Assessment has recently reviewed the methods that have been used in the literature to calculate natural, or background extinction rates and have compared them against current trends. The results, which are intentionally conservative, are sobering. Best estimates are that current extinction rates for well- documented groups of primarily, but not exclusively, vertebrates and vascular (in general, seed-bearing and fern-like) plants are at least 50 to 100 times larger than the expected natural background. There is no good reason to expect these rates to differ very much for plant or animal groups that are less well-studied.

On the basis of recent estimates of land-use change, largely in the tropics, there is a reasonable expectation that extinction rates in the very near future could rise, worldwide, to as much as 10,000 times the natural level. Extinctions of this number and extent would approach, and possibly surpass, the major mass extinctions of the geologic past, as when dinosaurs and other life forms disappeared, about 65 million years ago.

The total number of species that inhabit the planet is unknown. The UNEP Global Biodiversity Assessment uses an estimate of about 13 million, but the range varies from 8 to 50 million or more. Only about 2 million species have been described scientifically, and they are distributed very unevenly among different taxonomic groups (Table 2). While important in its own right, the number need not be precisely known to be concerned about the rates at which the better documented species are now disappearing. In today's world, most extinctions will occur before the species have even been named and described, much less known ecologically.

Over Exploitation

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Many of the best documented cases of individual species being driven to extinction or near-extinction by humans are those of over- exploitation.

The passenger pigeon--a species that resembled the smaller, mourning dove--was in the early 1800s the most abundant bird in North America, and so plentiful that migrating flocks of a billion or more individuals would darken the skies of parts of the eastern U.S. for days at a time. By the end of the last century it had been hunted to the brink of extinction, and in September of 1914, in a Cincinnati zoo, the passenger pigeon disappeared forever with the death of the last remaining bird. The American bison, or buffalo, of the Great Plains was also nearly hunted out of existence in the same century, and its larger, woods-dwelling relative was driven to extinction.

As many as a quarter of all the bird species in the world may have similarly vanished in the course of the last 1000 years with the expansion of human populations through the islands of the South Pacific. The spread of early people through the New World, about 10,000 years ago, was probably responsible for the extinction of many of the large mammals that were originally here: now-extinct mammoths, sloths, and cave bears are known to have been hunted by those who first walked through North and South America. The same impact was felt by large mammals in Australia, New Zealand, and Madagascar. The current and rapid loss of tropical hardwoods in many regions due to high commercial demand, low rates of successful replacement, and the long periods of growth necessary to produce new, marketable resources has raised concern about over- exploitation of some species, such as rosewood, although none of the trees are known to have been driven to extinction.

Over-exploitation is also a major factor in reducing the natural biodiversity of marine fisheries through major reductions in populations, although again, no extinctions have been documented. During the last two decades, the world has seen the collapse of a number of marine fisheries. Some of these have recovered, but others, such as the cod and haddock fisheries in the North Atlantic, have not. Even for those that recover, the consequences of the original over-exploitation on population dynamics and genetic diversity are now only poorly understood. What is often apparent is a systematic decrease in the size, and hence age, of the individuals that are harvested. The selective loss of larger fish has significant impacts on those that remain. If fertility is strongly related to body size, as is the case for many fish species, over-exploitation not only reduces the abundance of a species, but it may also make recovery more difficult in systematically removing the most fecund individuals. The ensuing consequences for overall ecosystem functioning and biodiversity are as yet not well understood.

Whole ecosystems can also be affected by over-exploitation. For example, a reduction in organic carbon and nutrients, including phosphorus or nitrogen, as may occur in intensively farmed areas, decreases the fertility of soils. When losses are severe, the resulting depletion can lead to either more intensified use by adding more fertilizers and then herbicides and pesticides to control weeds and pests (in the cycle noted above), or to abandonment. If abandoned, the land will probably not recover its original component of plant and animal species because of the depleted nutrients. Through this chain of happenings, an over-exploitation of the soil for agricultural gain can have long term, negative impacts on the biodiversity of the region.

Alien introductions
Introductions and invasions of alien species of plants and animals is a long-recognized problem, as detailed in an earlier issue of CONSEQUENCES. We have only limited ability to predict quantitatively the results of any particular intruder, including its capability of establishing a permanent, reproducing population. What is certain is that some areas are by nature more susceptible. Continental forests are reasonably resistant to newly introduced tree species, except in cases where they have been disturbed by heavy cutting or partial clearing. Native meadows and prairies, when disturbed, have also proven particularly susceptible to intruders, as is the case for the many grasslands around the world that have been converted to pasture or cultivated land. For example, many of the now common grasses in the intermontane western U.S. and southwestern Canada are transported Eurasian weeds. These species were able to invade and become established because the original perennial tussock grasses were unable to support the intensification of grazing from large-scale cattle ranching.

Freshwater lakes and streams have little immunity to invading species. Alien plants or animals seem able to establish reproducing populations relatively easily, and the new species often have significant impacts on biotic composition, and on a variety of ecosystem processes. Two examples of the kind of changes that can result from even well-meant introductions are the purposeful introduction of game fish to many lakes and streams throughout the world that replaced native varieties, and the ecological havoc that followed the introduction of the Nile perch in Lake Victoria in 1960 to benefit commercial fishing. In less than thirty years, the appetite of the Nile perch, whose food is smaller fish, led to the extinction of about thirty species of fish that were native to the lake.

In terrestrial ecosystems, the largest changes occur when the intruder brings quite different traits from those of native species. The best documented example is that of the introduction of the exotic tree, Myrica faga, into Hawaii, which has resulted in large changes in ecosystem dynamics. The significant difference, in this case, was the ability of the introduced tree--a legume like peas and beans and clover--to convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, a characteristic not previously present in those ecosystems. This ability of the introduced tree increases the nitrogen content of soils, and thus alters the raw materials on which many other plant species depend.

Introduced species with characteristics that are not qualitatively different from those of native species, can through force of numbers have large and long-lasting effects on them. About 100 European starlings were released in New York City in 1890-91 by a collector bent on establishing all the birds mentioned in the writings of William Shakespeare. The result, evident throughout the country today, is a diminished number of many native American songbirds, through competition for nest-sites, in which the aggressive and now very abundant starling has been extremely successful

Land Use

2007-09-24T23:34:00.000-07:00

Changes in how the land is used are probably the principal contributor to the current decline in biodiversity. About 1 to 2 percent of the land surface of the Earth is now devoted to urban use, but other changes in land cover and land use far exceed the direct impact of the small fraction that is paved or developed for homes and factories and other buildings. Homo sapiens has already converted about a quarter of all the land surface to agricultural uses. By some estimates we now appropriate directly or indirectly about 40 percent of what biologists call the primary production of the Earth's biota (the products of photosynthesis on which all other life depends), and the percentage that comes under our control in this way is increasing.

The pressures on terrestrial resources and land depend very much on population growth and the demands of early stages of economic development. Moreover, land acquisition, especially for agriculture and forestry, focuses initially on those areas with the most fertile soils and equable climates, which are often the areas of greatest biological diversity.

Deforestation in the humid tropics is probably the best-known current example of rapid land-use change. During the decade of the 1970s, vast areas of tropical forest in South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia were cleared and converted to agriculture and other uses. In the middle-to-late 1980s, the rates of deforestation in South America slowed dramatically, largely due to economic and tax policy changes in Brazil, but the pace of cutting in Africa and Southeast Asia, though poorly quantified, remains high. Globally, the rate of loss of tropical forests for the 1980s has been estimated at about 1 percent per year, but there is still considerable uncertainty. The rates of extinction of local species that accompany these rapid changes in land cover may soon be far in excess of what is found today, reaching as high as 10,000 times the natural background rate.

In the industrialized nations of the Northern Hemisphere the most rapid and widespread conversion of forest to other uses took place over the last several hundred years. In this time, much of the northeastern U.S., for example, was deforested at least once, in connection with the rise of agriculture and timber industries. But as regional and national economies changed, many previously cleared areas were left to return to their natural vegetation. As a result, forests have reappeared in parts of the Northeast, and indeed the country as a whole has probably gained forested land over the last several decades.

The current trend of most concern with respect to tree-cover in the U.S. is a shift to smaller parcel sizes. What once were continuously forested landscapes are now a quilt of small patches of trees, criss- crossed with roads, subdivisions, agricultural tracts, and a variety of different land-uses and land-covers: a scene that is familiar to anyone who has looked out an airplane window. The average size of tree-covered parcels is smaller than was the case twenty, fifty, or a hundred years ago, resulting in a landscape that is highly fragmented and partitioned.

The difference in terms of the natural world is great, and several studies now point with concern to the biological impacts of the shift to less continuous landscapes. The known consequences of these changes are reduced numbers of both plants and animals and a greater possibility of the outright loss of some of them--when in effect, they are painted into a corner with nowhere left for them to go. The interweaving of favorable and unfavorable habitats also curtails the ability of organisms to disperse, and makes recolonization of distant areas more difficult.

An analogous pattern of fragmentation can be found in parts of South America where deforestation was previously extremely rapid. Although the amount of new cutting appears to have fallen from that of previous decades, it seems to be increasing again in the rain forest of the Amazon, and the deforested, newly colonized regions now have their own distinctive appearance. Patchworks of active fields, orchards, abandoned fields, second growth forest, and primary forest are the norm. But the scene is ever changing through an interplay of active use by initial colonizers, abandonment, partial recovery through natural processes, and as then often happens, subsequent re-use. Analyses of potential impacts on biodiversity that are based on simple measures of deforested area can provide little more than very general conclusions.

Deforestation is not the only land-use change of interest or concern. Another with broad implications for biodiversity is the intensification of agriculture and grazing on those lands that have been traditionally devoted to these purposes. Of particular importance for biodiversity are the secondary impacts of intensive agriculture. Heavy applications of fertilizers and pesticides have the potential of creating additional environmental problems as well as affecting the abundance and viability of the other plants and animals and micro-organisms in the same or adjoining areas.

The adverse effects of non-point-source pollution due to the run-off of pesticides and herbicides from intensively-used fields are well- known. In addition, because of the understandable tendency to put the best land into production first, the expansion of agriculture into less fertile areas typically requires heavier applications of chemicals, more extensive site preparation, and other forms of more intensive management. The typical result is increased chemical run-off to the landscape, and with ensuing degradation, additional pressure for expansion, and so on. It is such a cycle that has led to widespread desertification in some parts of the world, primarily through overgrazing that can be compounded by naturally occurring droughts.

Our Dependence on Biodiversity

2007-09-24T23:33:00.000-07:00

Our lives depend on biodiversity in ways that are not often appreciated. A case in point is agriculture. Society has learned a tremendous amount about techniques to maximize crop yields, both in temperate climates such as the grain belt of the U.S. and Canada, and in subtropical and tropical environments, where the "green revolution" that gained initial momentum in the 1960s vastly increased yields of rice and other crops. In both cases, the advances relied in part on biodiversity, and specifically on the availability of diverse strains of cereal grains capable of responding positively to heavier applications of fertilizer. The need continues, for we are still learning how to sustain tropical agriculture and to minimize adverse environmental impacts of fertilizers and pesticides while maintaining high yields, and how to sustain the highly-managed agro-ecosystems on which we more and more depend.

Much of today's world is also dependent on wild resources, of which the best known examples are probably marine fisheries. The industrial nations of the world support large and technologically- advanced fleets whose sole purpose is to harvest wild fish for human consumption, either directly or indirectly as fishmeal for fertilizers, cattle feed, and aquaculture. Averaged globally, people derive about 16 percent of their total animal protein from marine fisheries. Many developing nations also support a combination of open-ocean fishing industries and intensive coastal and local fisheries, upon which coastal populations depend both for food and for their economic livelihood. About a sixth of the world's population, much of it in the developing world, derives more than a third of their total protein from marine fisheries.

Our long-standing dependence on the natural world for wood is another example that is still much in evidence around the world. Only a small fraction of the timber that is cut in the U.S., for instance, is harvested from plantations: most is taken from natural forests that are not intensively managed. Worldwide, an even greater fraction comes from trees grown in the wild: by far the most important source is unmanaged or lightly managed forest stands. The use of wood for fuel, while of little consequence in technologically advanced countries like our own, is an abiding staple in many developing nations, and the twin demands for shelter and fuel have led to extensive deforestation in many parts of the world, such as Madagascar and Indonesia.

Four out of every five of the top 150 prescription drugs used in the U.S. have had their origins in natural compounds. An example is aspirin--a derivative of salicylic acid which was first taken from the bark of willow trees. Today aspirin and many other drugs are synthesized more efficiently than they can be extracted from the wild, but they were first discovered in naturally occurring compounds, which then formed the basis for subsequent improvement. The process of discovery still continues. For example, taxol, a promising anti-cancer drug, was first extracted from a tree found in the wild: the Pacific yew. The chemical substance from which taxol came has since been discovered in close relatives of that species, thus reducing pressures for harvesting what is already a small population.

Other economic gains derive from our interaction with the natural world, of which the best known example may be the economic value of tourism. Much, although obviously not all vacation travel comes under the rubric of "eco-tourism," driven by a desire to see and experience the natural world. The total economic activity generated by tourists of this kind has been recently estimated by the United Nations at nearly $230 billion each year. Even on regional and local scales, the revenue generated by tourism can be substantial, and a major component of local and regional economies (Table 1).

Each of the activities cited above provides resources and economic gains for citizens in all societies. Yet each is at risk due to the continued erosion of the resource on which they are based, which is biodiversity. In what follows we review what is known of the forces that are reducing biodiversity and some of the possible consequences of this loss, and suggest areas in which additional research and policy analyses are most needed.

The Winds of Change
The recent Global Biodiversity Assessment of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) has identified four major causes of the present decrease in biodiversity, and a fifth which may yet prove to be important

Do We Still Need Nature?

2007-09-24T23:31:00.000-07:00

Our reliance on the Earth's non-renewable resources of oil and other fuel and non-fuel minerals is well understood by most people. Yet, when caught in the tide of technological advances that seem to dominate our everyday lives, we can easily forget the extent to which the modern, industrial world still depends on the biological world: on both the ecological systems that we have already learned to manage, such as farms and orchards, and on those we have not.

A fundamental property of ecological systems is a certain mixture, or diversity of living things: we cannot expect to find deer or ducks in the wild in the absence of the interconnected web of other plants and animals on which their lives depend. Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is a term that is now commonly used to describe the variety of living things and their relationships to each other and interactions with the environment.

The notion of biodiversity encompasses several different levels of biological organization, from the very specific to the most general. Perhaps the most basic is the variety of information contained in the genes of specific organisms, be they petunias or people. Different combinations of genes within organisms, or the existence of different variants of the same basic gene are the fundamental "stuff" of evolution. At the next level is the variety of different species that exist on the Earth: a concept that includes the relationship of different groups of species to each other. Biodiversity also describes the varied composition of ecosystems, and the variety of different sorts of ecosystems that are found in regions of study that biologists call landscapes.

It has been clear for some time that at all of these levels of organization the rich biodiversity that has always characterized the natural world is today declining. The extinctions or threatened extinctions of many species are but the most visible and well-known manifestation of a deeper and more far-reaching trend. What has been less obvious to many people are the potential consequences of these changes.

The Importance Of Biodiversity

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THE IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

At the ecosystem level, biodiversity provides the conditions and drives the processes that sustain the global economy – and our very survival as a species. The benefits and services provided by ecosystems include:

>> Generation of soils and maintenance of soil quality
The activities of microbial and animal species – including bacteria, algae, fungi, mites, millipedes and worms – condition soils, break down organic matter, and release essential nutrients to plants. These processes play a key role in the cycling of such crucial elements as nitrogen, carbon and phosphorous between the living and non-living parts of the biosphere.

>> Maintenance of air quality
Plant species purify the air and regulate the composition of the atmosphere, recycling vital oxygen and filtering harmful particles resulting from industrial activities.

>> Maintenance of water quality
Wetland ecosystems (swamps, marshes, etc.) absorb and recycle essential nutrients, treat sewage, and cleanse wastes. In estuaries, molluscs remove nutrients from the water, helping to prevent nutrient over-enrichment and its attendant problems, such as eutrophication arising from fertilizer run-off. Trees and forest soils purify water as it flows through forest ecosystems. In preventing soils from being washed away, forests also prevent the harmful siltation of rivers and reservoirs that may arise from erosion and landslides.

>> Pest control
Around 99 per cent of potential crop pests are controlled by a variety of other organisms, including insects, birds and fungi. These natural pesticides are in many ways superior to their artificial equivalents, since pests can often develop resistance to chemical controls.

>> Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
Some 130 billion metric tons of organic waste is processed every year by earth’s decomposing organisms. Many industrial wastes, including detergents, oils, acids and paper, are also detoxified and decomposed by the activities of living things. In soils, the end product of these processes – a range of simple inorganic chemicals – is returned to plants as nutrients. Higher (vascular) plants can themselves serve to remove harmful substances from groundwater.

>> Pollination and crop production
Many flowering plants rely on the activities of various animal species – bees, butterflies, bats, birds, etc. – to help them reproduce through the transportation of pollen. More than one-third of humanity’s food crops depend on this process of natural pollination. Many animal species have evolved to perform an additional function in plant reproduction through the dispersal of seeds.

>> Climate stabilization
Plant tissues and other organic materials within land and ocean ecosystems act as repositories of carbon, helping to slow the build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and thus contributing to climate stabilization. Ecosystems also exert direct influences on regional and local weather patterns. Moisture released into the atmosphere by rainforests, for example, causes regular rainstorms, limiting water loss from the region and helping to control the surface temperature. In cold climates, meanwhile, forests act as insulators and as windbreaks, helping to mitigate the impacts of freezing temperatures.

>> Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters
Forests and grasslands protect landscapes against erosion, nutrient loss, and landslides through the binding action of roots. Ecosystems bordering regularly flooding rivers (floodplain forests and wetlands) help to absorb excess water and thus reduce the damage caused by floods. Certain coastal ecosystems (salt marshes, mangrove forests, etc.) prevent the erosion of coastlines.

>> Provision of food security
Biodiversity provides the vast majority of our foodstuffs. The annual world fish catch, for example (averaging 100 million metric tons), represents humanity’s most important source of wild animal protein, with over 20 per cent of the population in Africa and Asia dependent on fish as their primary source of protein. Terrestrial animals, meanwhile, supply an array of food products: eggs, milk, meat, etc. Wild biodiversity provides a wide variety of important foodstuffs, including fruits, game meats, nuts, mushrooms, honey, spices and flavorings. These wild foods are especially important when agricultural supplies fail. Indeed, wild biodiversity guards against the failure of even the most advanced agricultural systems. For example, the productivity of many of the developed world’s agricultural crops is maintained through the regular assimilation of new genes from wild relatives of these crops. These wild genes offer resistance to the pests and diseases that pose an ever-evolving threat to harvests.

The annual world fish catch represents humanity’s most important source of wild animal protein

>> Provision of health care
The World Health Organization estimates that 80 per cent of people in the developing world rely on traditional medicines derived mainly from plants. In Southeast Asia, for example, traditional healers use some 6,500 different plant species to treat malaria, stomach ulcers, syphilis, and other diseases. Biodiversity is also critical to the 'formal' health sector of the developed world. A recent survey showed that of the top 150 prescription drugs used in the United States, 118 are based on natural sources. Of these, 74 per cent are derived from plants. Microbes and animal species have also contributed a range of medicines, including Penicillin (derived from the fungus Pencillium notatum) and several drugs – including anesthetics– derived from the skin secretions of tree-frog species. The medicinal importance of biodiversity is particularly impressive considering that only a tiny fraction of earth’s species have been thoroughly investigated for medicinal properties. The investigative process is continually turning up new pharmaceuticals of great promise. A recent study of cone snails, for example, has identified a painkiller that is up to a thousand times more effective than morphine, but without morphine’s addictive properties.

>> Income generation
Needless to say, the above services are all essential to the functioning of the global economy. Yet biodiversity also has great importance as a direct source of incomes and economic development. One example is 'bioprospecting' (the search for previously unknown biotic products of specific utility, such as natural pesticides, anti-fungal toxins and ‘oil-eating’ enzymes). Such discoveries join an impressive list of ‘miscellaneous’ goods provided by biodiversity, including many of our most important building materials, fibres, fuels, waxes, resins, aromatics, dyes and gums. Even in its wholly untapped state, biodiversity does great service to economies through ‘ecotourism’. People taking nature-related holidays contribute at least $500 billion per year to the national incomes of the countries they visit. Florida’s coral reefs, for example, earn around $1.6 billion per year through tourism alone.

>> Spiritual / cultural value
It’s no mystery why people are prepared to spend so much to get close to nature. Human beings instinctively derive aesthetic and spiritual satisfaction from biodiversity. Recent studies have begun to confirm what has always been known: our emotional wellbeing is enhanced by the proximity of natural beauty. The umbilical bond between humanity and biodiversity is reflected in the art, religions and traditions of diverse human cultures: a spiritual heritage that will be lost for all time if its basis – nature itself – continues to be destroyed

An example of a Biodiversity Conservation Plan

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Pennsylvania Biodiversity Conservation Plan
The diversity of life is a key measure of the health of our environment. . . Urbanization and fragmentation of landscapes, the introduction of exotic species and air and water pollution all degrade natural habitats and pose the greatest threats to Pennsylvania's remaining natural diversity. Future population growth and development will inevitably continue such pressures on the state's natural diversity and thus on its environmental health. Without a concerted effort to maintain and enhance natural diversity, populations of many native species will continue to decline and several will face extinction. Despite this mounting hazard, Pennsylvania lacks a comprehensive policy or strategy for the conservation of natural diversity.
Report of the Pennsylvania 21st Century Environment Commission
September 1998, pg. 34

In September 1998, the Pennsylvania 21st Century Environment Commission presented its findings on the state of the environment and natural resources in the Commonwealth. This seminal report recognized the importance of natural diversity (= biodiversity) to both the environmental and economic health of the state. The loss of biodiversity impacts all ecosystems and habitats in Pennsylvania – from forests to fields, from major rivers to small mountain streams, from old growth forests to urban vacant lots – and thus affects all citizens regardless of economic level, race, gender, age, or where they live. Despite the importance of biodiversity, the 21st Century Report recognized that "Pennsylvania lacks a comprehensive policy or strategy for the conservation of natural diversity."

To move forward its many recommendations on protecting and conserving biodiversity, the Commission proposed that a broad-based public-private partnership be formed, resulting in formation of the Pennsylvania Biodiversity Partnership (PBP). PBP members established seven strategies to achieve our mission of conserving biodiversity statewide, including the development of a scientifically-based plan for biodiversity conservation. Even though PBP members represent a wide range of backgrounds and opinions, a consensus quickly emerged on the priority of creating a statewide plan and initial funding for this project was received in 2001.

The development of the Pennsylvania Biodiversity Conservation Plan is a multi-phase process, with products including Biodiversity in Pennsylvania–Snapshot 2002, an Executive Summary of that report, the PABIODIV listserve, the PBP website, and the final Pennsylvania Biodiversity Conservation Plan. Public outreach has been an important component of all phases of the process.

Plan Development Overview
Phase 1: Biodiversity in Pennsylvania: Snapshot 2002
Baseline report on present state of biodiversity
Phase 2: Blueprint for the Biodiversity Conservation Plan
General Information Gathering and Public Input: Round 1
- Focus Groups and Comment Forms (end Jun 04)
Issues and Recommendations for Draft Plan
- Presented at statewide conference in Nov 04
Phase 3: Draft PA Biodiversity Conservation Plan
Gather Input on Draft Plan (end Winter 2005)
Continued Information Gathering and Plan Revisions
Phase 4: Final Strategy Development and Recommendations
Phase 3 Input Integrated into Draft Plan
Final PA Biodiversity Conservation Plan Released (early 2006)
Phase 5: Implementation and Communication
Promote and communicate about the Plan
Assist partner organizations and members with implementation

Summary of Plan Development Activities
• Received funding from state, federal, and private sources for the PA Biodiversity Conservation Plan.
• Produced and published Biodiversity in Pennsylvania: Snapshot 2002.
• Established the PA Biodiversity Listserve (PABIODIV) as a statewide communication tool about biodiversity issues (almost 600 members).
• Organized two statewide conferences (2001 and 2004) to discuss the biodiversity plan.
• Hosted 15 focus group meetings and received almost 700 comment forms, representing all counties in the state.
• Established the PBP website.
• Participated as an exhibitor and/or speaker in over 100 events, with direct interaction with thousands of people about the biodiversity plan.
• Received extensive media coverage (over 120 articles or programs with potential audience of over 3,000,000 people) about PBP and the statewide biodiversity plan.
• Participated in regional and national biodiversity workshops.

Benefits of a Statewide Biodiversity Conservation Plan
• Facilitate interactions among groups concerned with biodiversity.
• Increase cooperation and coordination among government agencies, organizations, business, and individuals involved in biodiversity issues.
• Minimize duplication of efforts among organizations.
• Establish informed priorities for inventory, monitoring, and conservation at a statewide level.
• Develop educational and training materials for managing and enhancing Pennsylvania biodiversity.
• Increase voluntary stewardship of biodiversity and thus avoid the need for additional regulations.
• Increase educational opportunities regarding the impact and importance of biodiversity to our lives and to the ecological and economic health of Pennsylvania.

Why Whales Developed Sonar

2007-09-20T02:06:00.000-07:00

When whales first took the plunge into the ocean from land about 45 million years ago, they lacked the ability to echolocate—that is, to find and identify objects by emitting and bouncing sounds off them, much as bats do.

About 7 million years later, toothed whales (sperm whales are a type of toothed whale) developed this ability, fossils show.

Some marine biologists think that sonar in toothed whales came about as a better way to find food in the darkness of the deep ocean. But how did the whales, which primarily ate fish, know there was a large supply of food down in the dark?

Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley, suggest that giant squid would bump into the whales as the squid migrated from the dark depths to the surface at night, something they've been doing for about 200 million years.

“When whales developed sonar," explained researcher Nick Pyenson of the University of California, Berkeley, "it allowed them to dive deeper and follow the squids into the very dark ocean depths, where they discovered a rich food source that was accessible 24 hours day.”

Cephalopods, such as squid, are the most abundant and high-energy resource in the ocean and are eaten by 90 percent of all toothed whales.

The researchers detailed their idea in the European journal Lethaia.

The development of echolocation in whales and bats are strong examples of how two very different species evolved similar adaptations to their environment and passed it down to succeeding generations, a process known as convergent evolution, Pyenson noted.

“With convergent evolution, we see the same solution for being able to chase after your prey in the dark," Pyenson said, "whether you’re a bat or a whale.”

Sea Turtles' Mystery Hideout Revealed

2007-09-20T01:38:00.000-07:00

Once sea-turtle hatchlings hit the surf, they vanish for up to five years. Where the half-dollar-size tots spend these "lost years" while ballooning to the size of dinner plates has been a mystery, until now.

New research, published today in the online edition of the journal Biology Letters, indicates the green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) hide out in the open ocean, where they feast on jellyfish and other marine creatures.

Not only did the researchers spot their short-lived sea homes, but they discovered that these reptiles, thought to be lifelong vegetarians, are actually meat eaters as juveniles.

The results help to solve a 50-year-old mystery about the hideouts. “This has been a really intriguing and embarrassing problem for sea-turtle biologists, because so many green-turtle hatchlings enter the ocean, and we haven’t known where they go,” said study team member Karen Bjorndal, a zoologist and director of the University of Florida's Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research.

Before this study, scientists had two "snapshots" that provided scant clues about the missing information on the lives of green turtles: When they hatch, the 2-inch-long (5-centimeters) sea turtles push through seemingly colossal surf. Then, between three and five years later, the now juveniles reappear closer to shore.

"Literally, when green turtles run off their nesting beach and into the ocean as little hatchlings, they disappear. And nobody sees them again [for years]," Bjorndal told LiveScience.

The scientists collected samples from the shells of 44 green sea turtles at a site near Great Inagua in the Bahamas. They analyzed heavy and light stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen from both the oldest (earliest-grown) and newest sections of the shells. The isotopes act as fingerprints for an animal's diet (carnivore or herbivore) and where in the ocean the animal lived.

The results indicated the green sea turtles spent their lost years in the deep ocean, feeding as carnivores, before moving closer to shore and switching to a vegetarian diet of sea grasses.

The findings have implications for conservation of the green turtles, because as Bjorndal explained, "you can't protect a species if you don’t know where it is."

The magnitude of biodiversity

2007-09-19T20:16:00.000-07:00

Biodiversity is most frequently quantified as the number of species. Estimates of the number of species currently living on Earth range widely, largely because most living species are microorganisms and tiny invertebrates, but most estimates fall between 5 million and 30 million species. Roughly 1.75 million species have been formally described and given official names. Insects comprise over half of the described species, and ~3/4 of known animal species. The number of undescribed species is undoubtedly much higher, however. Particularly in inaccessible environments, and for inconspicuous groups of organisms, collecting expeditions routinely discover many undescribed species. Estimates of the total numbers of species on Earth have been derived variously by extrapolating from the ratios of described to previously unknown species in quantitative samples, from the judgment of experts in particular taxonomic groups, and from patterns in the description of new species through time. For most groups of organisms other than vertebrates, such estimates are little more than educated guesses, explaining the wide range in estimates of global species diversity. Since insects are essentially absent from the sea, the species diversity of the oceans is generally considerably lower than terrestrial ones.

Species can be grouped on the basis of shared characteristics into hierarchical groups, or taxa, reflecting their shared evolutionary history. At the highest level of classification (or deepest branches in the evolutionary tree of life) organisms are divided into three Domains: 1) the Bacteria, which are microorganisms lacking a cellular nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles; 2) the relatively recently discovered Archaea, microorganisms of primarily extreme environments such as hot springs, which are superficially similar to Bacteria but fundamentally different at biochemical and genetic levels; and 3) the Eukarya, which include all other organisms based on nucleated cells. The Eukarya includes the four "kingdoms", the protists, animals, plants, and fungi. Each of the eukaryotic kingdoms in turn is divided into a number of phyla. At this higher taxonomic level, the oceans are far more diverse than those on land, likely reflecting the marine origins of life on Earth. Nearly half the phyla of animals occur only in the sea (e.g., the sea stars and other echinoderms), whereas only one (the obscure Onychophora, or velvet worms) is restricted to land.

Impact of Human Activities and Loss of Biodiversity in Freshwater Ecosystems in China

2007-09-19T14:36:00.000-07:00

Freshwater resources are fundamental

　

Water and atmosphere are the most fundamental materials of the world for the existence of humans and all other organisms. Water covers 2/3 of the earth's surface and is the most abundant structural component of organisms. Life is essentially based on the continuous exchange of water between an organism and its environment. Freshwater constitutes only 3% of the total water of the world; of which 77.2% is stored as ice, 22.4% as underground and soil water, and about 0.4% is in lakes, rivers and other water bodies (i.e., pond, bogs, etc.) (IIED, 1987). Although freshwater is much less abundant than salt water, it is the essential material for terrestrial organisms and fundamental to the civilization of humans. It also serves as the bridge between terrestrial and marine ecosystems. In recent years, at least 43 countries have experienced water shortage, and one hundred million people are confronted with worse drinking water. At present, water shortage has become one of the most serious global environmental problems which threatens human society.

　

China is poor in water supply, with the average annual supply for each person around 2,600 tons, which is only 1/4 of the world's average (IIED, 1987). The quantity of freshwater resources is also declining, while the demand for it is increasing; moreover, about half of the lakes have already been polluted to some extent by the increasing industrialization, human and agricultural wastes. Because increasing freshwater shortage is becoming an important limiting factor for the economic growth and development of China, it is important for our existence to protect freshwater resources.

　

Freshwater fishes are important food resources

　

Fish make up the most abundant group of vertebrates, and there are in excess of 22,000 described species. Global fish production exceeds that of cattle, sheep, poultry or eggs, and is the largest source of either wild or domestic animal protein for the world's expanding human population (Norse, 1992). Of total world fish landings in 1989, marine landings comprised 86.2% while inland fisheries (aquaculture and capture fisheries) accounted for the remaining 13.8% (FAO, 1991). In 1990, total fish landings in China was 1,236 tons, while inland fisheries accounted for as high as 42%. Therefore, freshwater fishes comprised one of the fundamental elements for the existence of Chinese people. There are around 8,400 described species of freshwater fishes in the world, which comprise approximately 40% of total fish species. Around 1,500 species of freshwater fish have been described in Asia (Nelson, 1984). In China, there are in excess of 800 primary freshwater fishes (those confined to freshwater), among which about 500 species are endemic.

　

It is estimated that there is around 100,000km3 of water for each marine species but only 15km3 for each freshwater species; and that the population level of a marine species may be around 109. but ranges down to around 106 for freshwater species (Groombridge, 1992). Compared with marine ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems are usually smaller, more isolated from each other, and the distributions of freshwater fish species are more limited. Freshwater ecosystems are also less stable, and much more susceptible to environmental disturbance. For example, more than one decade ago in Lake Luguhu (located in the intersectional area between Sichuan and Yunnan provinces), local people had tried to introduce grass carp. However, by mistake they introduced Pseudorasbora parva, which not only have little commercial value but also made three species of Schizothoracine fishes endangered to near extinction (Liang, pers. comm.).

　

It is estimated that at least 20% (ca. 1,800 species) of the world's freshwater fish species are seriously threatened or extinct, which is mainly caused by habitat modification (competition for water, drainage, pollution), introduced species and commercial exploitation (Groombridge, 1992). In North America, nearly 1/3 of the total fish species are endangered, threatened or listed as species of special concern (Williams et al., 1989). In China, there are 92 vulnerable of endangered species of freshwater fishes which account for 10% of the total number of freshwater fish; Cyprinus yilongensis, an endemic species in Yunnan Province, has become extinct, and Psephurs gladius, Macrura reevesi and Hucho bleekeri are in danger of extinction (Le, 1995a,b).

　

　

　

Lake ecosystems in the middle and lower basins of the Yangtze River

　

The total surface area of all Chinese lakes is around 74,300km2, of which 42% is in humid eastern China. The Yangtze River, located in the eastern plain, is the longest river in China and the third longest river in the world. It has a total length of more than 6,300km. The middle and lower basins of the Yangtze are one of the major distribution areas of freshwater lakes in China, and the surface area of lakes constitutes around 1/8 of the total surface area of this region.

　

The Yangtze basin is the most important commercial fishing base in China with a fish yield comprising around 2/3 of the total (Liu and He, 1992). In addition, waters of the Yangtze basins are not only essential for water supplies (drinking water, irrigation, etc.) but also for many other purposes such as recreation, and are therefore, very important for the economic development.

The middle and lower basins of the Yangtze River are influenced by the wet monsoon, and the lakes of the basin were formed by flood of the river in the Late Tertiary. These lakes are shallow (without thermal stratification), and interlaced with the main river and its branches into a unique complex river-lakes ecosystem. These shallow lakes usually have a high productivity, abundant vegetation cover, and a developed littoral zone communities. Because of the differences between the river and the lakes, and the flooding caused by the wet monsoon there are obvious changes in water level. In this environment have evolved unique migrating fish, for example: Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Aristichys nobilis, Ctenopharyngodon idellus, Mylopharyngodon piceus, Ochetobius elongatus, Luciobrama macrocephalus, Squaliobarbus curriculus, and Parabramis pekinensis. Among these are some of major commercial importance in China and the world (The Fourth Laboratory of the Institute and the Tunghu Fish Farm, 1976). In the Yangtze basin, there are about 300 fish species, of which more than half belong to the Cyprinidae, the most commercially important fishes are also cyprinids (Liu and He, 1992). The Yangtze basins are considered to be the center of origin and evolution of many freshwater fishes in East Asia, preserving some remnant fish species (Cao and Chen, pers. comm.). Natural lakes of the Yangtze basins, superior in water quality and abundant in species diversity, provide essential freshwater resources for our existence.

　

Biodiversity problems of lake ecosystems

　

For several decades, inappropriate construction of dikes, dams and levees, unreasonable fishing and fishery management, and the extremely strong pressure of the rapidly increasing human population on lake ecosystems, have brought severe damage to the biodiversity from genetic to ecosystem levels. This has resulted in the destruction of many natural resources of the lakes and have posed a threat to the stability of our society and the sustainable development of the economy.

　

1. Shrinking and fragmentation of lake ecosystems

　

Fragmentation of lakes by continuous subsidence of mud from river water and by extensive reclamation of farmland from the lakes is a serious problem in China. Not only are the lakes in the western part of China shrinking, but those in the eastern part are also contracting. In the western regions, drought has fragmented many lakes into smaller lakes (Shi, 1989). While in the eastern regions, shrinking of lakes is mainly caused by subsidence of mud from river water, and by reclamation of farmland from lakes. In the eastern part of China, the superior natural conditions for agriculture has been accompanied with a rapid increase in human population, and consequently a rapid decline in land area per capita, so conversion of lakes for farmland has become an historical by-product. For example, the total surface area of Lake Dongtin was 4,350km2 in 1949, but declined to 2,619km2 in 1983, due to continuous subsidence of river water and extensive reclamation of farmland from the lake. The total surface area of Lake Honghu was about 760km2 in the early 1950's, but subsequent portioning and reclamation work in the 1960's and 1970's around the lake caused the continual shrinkage of the surface area of the lake to 350km2 of 1979. The Gianghan Plain contained 1,066 various sized lakes (surface area of 8,300km2 ), however, by the early 1980's, only 309 lakes (surface area of 5,600km2) were left due to similar reasons (Shi, et al., 1985).

　

Welcomme (1979) reported that the number of fish species present in subtropical and tropical rivers was highly correlated with the area of the river basin. Temperate rivers showed a similar pattern, although the number of species rises more steeply with increasing basin area in tropical systems than in higher latitudes. Two factors are important here: (1) the area of a lake sets an upper limit to the maximum population size of each fish species and (2) small populations are inherently more prone to extinction than large ones. From this alone it can be predicted that shrinking of lake ecosystems will contract the living spaces of many freshwater species, and therefore make more and more fish species endangered or extinct.

　

2. Destruction of lake-river ecosystem by severance of lakes from the Yangtze River

　

Severance of lakes from the river by construction of sluices and dikes have led to the impoverishment of the natural fish resource--especially of migratory fishes--causing the lakes to be dominated by species of small size. The Yangtze basin was originally a network of water systems, including all of the large and small tributaries of the river, and many interconnected shallow lakes. This complex river-lakes system provided superior living conditions for many commercially important migratory fish species (including four domestic carp) which can spawn only in the river and regularly migrate into lakes for feeding (Fish Laboratory, 1976). Over the past decades, most lakes have been artificially severed from the river by hydroelectric and irrigation projects, and as a result, the migratory fish can no longer enter into these lakes from the river. This has lead to a sharp decline of their population size in both the lakes and the river.

　

In the middle and lower region of the Yangtze River, there averages around a hundred fish species in natural lakes, but only 30-40 species in severed lakes. For instance, according to a survey of fish species made in the 1990's in Honghu Lake, there were no less than 90 species in the lake. In 1958, a sluice was constructed in the canal linking the lake with the river, thus severing the intercommunication between the river and the lake. The survey in 1964 listed 74 species, in 1981-1982, 54 species, of which only 33 species were obtained from the lake, while the remaining 21 species were riverine fishes carried into the lake during the channeling of the Changjiang River water for the purpose of irrigation.

　

There is also a shortage of large-sized economic fish species which are mostly migratory between the lake and the river (Honghu Research Group, 1991). Fishery resources of the three domestic carp (siluer, bighead and grass carp) in the Yangtze River are also decreasing: the catch of marketable-sized fishes in the 1980's was just half as much as that in the 1950's, whereas the catch of natural fries was only one quarter as much as that in the 1960's. Changes in composition of the catch also occurred: proportion of migratory fishes declined, whereas that of small-sized lake-dwelling species increased (Li, et al., 1990).

　

Fingerlings of the four domestic carp used as stocking are now mainly from artificial reproduction, but retrogression due to successive inbreeding has occurred (i.e., both growth and mature age decline, adult fish become smaller, and incidence of diseases become higher). For example, in natural populations of silver carp, the mature age of females is 3-4 years with an average body weight of 4.85kg, and the mature age of males is 3 years with a average body weight of 3.81kg. After inbreeding for five generations, the mature age of females declined to 2 years with a body weight of only 1.25kg (the minimum reached as low as 0.3kg) and the mature age of males declined to one year with a body weight of only 0.69kg. Moreover, the inbreeding offsprings had a higher malformation rate, a weaker constitution, and an eleven times higher incidence of diseases. Therefore, it is harmful to inbreed for many generations, and it is essential to restore the population by natural fingerlings. At present, adult fishes of the Yangtze River are mainly from Lake Boyang and Lake Dongtin which have not yet been severed from the river, and fate of these two lakes remains unclear (Liang, pers. comm). Severance of lakes from the river by hydroelectric and irrigation projects has changed or disrupted dispersal and migration of drastic changes in environments will accelerate distinction of remnant species, and consequently decrease the abundant biodiversity.

　

3. Decline in biodiversity of fish species by reckless over fishing

　

Over fishing is commonly occurring in large lakes which are too large to cultivate fish and manage fisheries efficiently. In addition to the severance of lake from the river, reckless over fishing of natural fish populations has resulted in severe decline of species diversity, and decreased drastically the population sizes of commercially important large-sized fish species (mostly migratory fishes). Consequently, a lack of top consumers (carnivores) has usually caused an explosive population increase of small-sized fishes (swamping also favors small sized species), leading to a low fish yield, low fish quality, and low profit (Liang, pers. comm.).

　

For instance, fish production of Honghu Lake witnessed a steady decline. In the 1950's, the annual fish yield was around 10,000 tons and the dominant species were the four-domestic-carp, Cyprinus carpio and Parabramis pekinensis. However, excessive overfishing and inadequate protection of the spawners caused the diminution both in the size of fish species and in the size of individual fish, the lake being dominated by species of small size as well as by population of stunted growth. In the 1980's, the annual fish yield declined to 3,000-4,000 tons, and 87% were composed of the small-sized Carassium auratus auratus, Pseudobagrus fulvidraco and Culter erythropterus (Honghu Research Goup, 1991).

　

In Lake Dongtin, the maximum recorded annual fish yield reached as high as 45,000 tons, and the average annual yield was 30,700 tons in the 1950's, but declined to 15,000 tons in the 1980's. The composition of fish yield also changed obviously: the proportion of migrating fishes declined (mainly the four domestic carp), while that of lake-dwelling fishes (Cyprinus carpio, Carassium auratus auratus and Silurus asotus) greatly increased. Of the major economic fishes captured, the proportion of young ages increased and the average individual size of a certain age was also decreased. A large number of young individuals and small-sized species became the targets of fishing (Shan, et al., 1990).

　

A quite similar phenomenon also occur in some of the lakes of the middle and lower basins of the Yangtze River such as in Lake Caohu, Lake Taihu and Lake Hongzhe, where three small-sized species of Coilia became dominant (Liang, pers. comm.; Shun & Huang, 1993).

　

4. Seconday Extinction following destruction of climax macrophyte communities

　

Over-stocking of plant-eating carps has usually caused severe destruction of climax macrophyte communities, and consequently led to a series of extinction of animal species. Like our ancestors who had advanced from collecting wild plants and animals to cultivating crops and domestic animals, artificial breeding, stocking and cultivating fish have developed rapidly. We have succeeded in changing the fish composition for our purposes and cultivating some commercially important fish species. This kind of fishery has applied not only to ponds but also to small/middle-sized lakes (especially urban lakes), and has made it possible to greatly increase fish yield, and to lessen the danger of over-capture on natural populations of some species. However, it has been accompanied with serious problems. In order to get short-term profit over-stocking of fish has led to overgrazing of prey organisms, which has conversely exerted great impact on the whole ecosystem. The most significant events are the destruction of vegetation cover, especially submerged macrophytes, and the dominance of increased r-selected organisms.

　

In many lakes, the over-stocking of plant-eating carp (especially grass carp) has usually led to destruction of macrophyte communities, and led to the shift of dominant primary producers from macrophytes to phytoplankton. For instance, in the Guozheng area of Lake Donghu, the biomass of macrophytes was as high as 1,779.8g/m2, but declined to 5.8g/m2, which was mainly due to over-stocking of the grass carp. The high destructive power of grass carp on macrophytes is not only due to their low digestion of macrophytes but also because the grass carp suppress the recovery of macrophytes by grazing on new shoots. To macrophytes, algae are r-selected species with a small body and a high turnover rate, and their ability to store nutrients is low. Therefore, in lakes dominated by macrophytes, since a lot of nutrients are stored in macrophytes, the growth of algae is suppressed, and the water is clear. This process is sometimes referred to as the cleanup ability of macrophytes. As the abundance of macrophytes declines, nutrients stored in macrophytes are released into lake water by grazing and excretion of the grass carp. This favors the growth of phytoplankton. Moreover, increased phytoplankton biomass decreases both water transparency and compensative depth of macrophytes, which in return decreases living extent of the macrophytes. Such a vicious circle usually leads to less and less macrophytes of even their extinction. Now, in the Guozheng area of Lake Donghu, the climax macrophyte community in the 1950's has disappeared completely, and consequently, it is followed by secondary succession of the primary producer community in which the dominants are r-selected algae, which is just like the consequences of deforestation for agriculture (Liang, pers. comm.).

　

Secondary extinction. Macrophyte communities are associated with many periphyton and mollusc, and also serve both as living space and as the substrata for the spawning of many fishes. Therefore, an abundant macrophyte community is accompanied with a high biodiversity of the whole community of plants and animals. The destruction of macrophytes not only leads to the crash of the grass carp populations, but also causes secondary extinction of those organisms depending on these macrophytes and of those fish associated with these directly-related organisms. For example, with the disappearance of macrophytes, many periphytons and molluscs are prone to extinction. This causes the spawning substrata of Cyprinus carpio, Carassium auratus and Ophicephalus argus to also be decreased. The destruction of living environments for molluscs then results in the decline of the available food for Cyprinus carpio and Mylopharyngogon piceus. The dominance of grass carp is then replaced by filter-feeding planktivorous fishes, and so on.

　

Decline in stability of ecosystems. Disappearance of macrophytes not only causes increase in nutrient concentrations, but also leads to obvious decline in biodiversity of plankton community. In four lake areas (with different nutrient levels) of Lake Donghu, three biodiversity indicies (Margalef, Sympson and Shannon-Weaver) and the number of species of diatoms showed obvious negative relationships with nutrient levels (Lei Anping, Unpubl.). In two sampling stations of Lake Donghu, the Margalef Index of rotifers in 1991 (with high nutrient levels) was only 1/3 that in 1992 (with low nutrient levels). A similar decline in species number was also observed, and eutrophication of the lake decreased the biodiversity of rotifers (Zhuge Yan, Unpubl.). Similar phenomenon might have occurred to other groups of plankton.

　

However, it remains unknown why eutrophication decreases biodiversity of plankton communities. On the other hand, in hypertrophic waters (probably due to low biodiversity) stability of the systems declines severely, and an outbreak of a few algal species, typically the cyanobacterium water bloom, frequently occurs. In recent years, the frequent outburst of blood poisoning fish disease by bacteria in the lakes of the middle and lower regions of the Yangtze River is probably related to the simplification of the aquatic community (it is also possibly attributed by too high fish stocking density and decreasing water quality). This is very similar to the frequent outburst of insect or disease in the highly-simplified agricultural ecosystems with only one or a few crops.

　

5. Chemical pollution and accelerated eutrophication in urban lakes

　

In terrestrial ecosystems, human agricultural activities usually lead to decline in soil nutrients. From southern to northern parts of China, nutrient concentrations in the soil cultivated for 200-500 years, are only half that in the original soil covered with primary vegetation (Heilongjiang Term, 1982). However, during the ontogeny of a lake, organic and inorganic nutrients from the surrounding terrestrial ecosystems accumulates continuously. Trophic status of the lake changes from oligotrophic to eutrophic, and the lake finally appears as land. The process of natural eutrophication is very slow, usually on the time scale of centuries or more. But in recent decades (especially in many urban lakes) the rapid increase in the human population around lakes has resulted in outpouring of untreated industry and organic wastes into the lakes. Also because of unreasonable fishery management, eutrophication in these lakes have been accelerated at an extremely fast rate (i.e., it only needs decades, or even several years to change the lakes from mesotrophic to hypertrophic levels). Lake Donghu in Wuhan City and Lake Xuanwu in Nankin City are good examples of this. The water in lake ecosystems is directly comparable to the soil in terrestrial ecosystems. Soil is important because it supports terrestrial animals and plants. However, water in freshwater ecosystems is important not only because it provides aquatic food but also because it supplies freshwater resources. Severe eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems results in destruction of water supply, and although productivity of the ecosystem may be high, decreasing water quality may be a great threat to human health.

　

At present, nearly all urban lakes have been seriously eutrophicated. This is not only due to the rapid increase in surrounding human population, but also related with unreasonable fish cultivation. Overstocking of plant-eating carp has resulted in the destruction of submerged macrophytes. This practice is more or less intentional because it is thought that the deforestation by grass carp not only makes people get high fish yield, but also increases the fish yield of the planktivorous silver and bighead carp (as more nitrogen and phosphorous change into plankton biomass). For example, in 1963 in the Guozheng area of Lake Donghu, the biomass of macrophytes was 1779.8 g/m2, and phytoplankton production was only 1 g/m2/day. However, in 1975, the biomass of macrophytes declined to 5.8 g/m2, while phytoplankton production increased to 4.1 g 0.2/m2 (Chen, 1989). During the same period, fish yield of Lake Donghu increased from 93.8 to 276.0kg/ha (Liu, 1984), and proportion of silver and bighead carp was 83% (Section of Fish Ecology, 1976) (now more than 98%). On the other hand, water quality of Lake Donghu became worse and worse: low transparency, outburst of cyanobacterium water bloom, stinking odor of the polluted lake water (Jao & Zhang, 1980). These decreased the lakes multi-functions such as providing drinking water supply and recreation.

　

Recent studies further indicate that algal blooms (specifically, microcystins) a symptom of lake eutrophication, are harmful to the human liver (Falconer, 1983; Hasser, 1989; Mirura, 1991; Runneger, 1987, 1991). Microcystins not only inhibits the activity of protein phosphates, but also acts as a tumor promoter (Erikson, 1990; Honkanen, 1990; Matsushima, 1990; Nishiwaki-Matsushima, 1991; Yoshizawa, 1990), and is a health threat to humans..

　

Conclusions

　

Habitat loss, modification or fragmentation, reckless overfishing, overstocking of plant-eating carp and deterioration of the ecological environment appears to be the most serious current threats to biodiversity in freshwater lakes and species are faced by several of these threats operating simultaneously. Generally, aquatic ecosystems have received little attention in comparison with terrestrial ecosystems, and only a few scattered surveys (mainly on fish) have so far been conducted. Severe decline in species diversity of fish, coupled with inadequate knowledge of freshwater faunas, indicates that biological diversity in aquatic systems require increased conservation attention.

　

Acknowledgments

　

We wish to express deep thanks to Prof. Liang Yangling who kindly provided the unpublished manuscript titled: "On the current status and the future of Chinese fisheries from ecological viewpoint." Thanks are also to Mmes Lei Anping and Zhuge Yan for the kind provision of their unpublished data.

　

Biodiversity - What's the problem?

2007-09-19T14:26:00.000-07:00

Biodiversity is in trouble, in Flintshire and throughout the world. There is a demand to build more roads, houses, shops, factories and power stations, but Flintshires plants and animals need this land too. There is a demand for resources such as minerals, sand and gravel for building and industry, but this will often lead to the loss of plants and animals living in the areas we quarry.

We affect biodiversity by polluting air, water and land with wastes from agriculture, industry and domestic activities. We remove hedgerows, trees, and ponds, the homes of plants and animals, to increase our field sizes and "tidy up" the countryside. We use artificial fertilisers and pesticides in an attempt to increase our food production, which leads to a loss of plants and animals.

The Common Toad - under threat The Common toad - not so common anymore!

The red squirrel is probably extinct in Flintshire, as there have been no recent sightings!

Habitat management

Beech forest managementDifferent plants and animals need different types of habitats (the places where they live). Often these habitats will only survive in a suitable condition with management. For example most of our grasslands only exist because farmers have utilised these areas for low level grazing by stock for hundreds of years. Because of changes in farming practices farmers have been put under pressure to increase stocking levels, therefore the interesting and important fauna and flora assemblages that have developed on these areas over centuries are being lost.

The loss of traditional management skills and practices, such as coppicing of woodlands and laying of hedgerows, has also led to a loss of suitable habitat for many plants and animals, such as the dormouse, and the barn owl.

Species loss

Sometimes plants or animals only live in a small area, and once lost from this area the whole species becomes extinct. Not only can species be lost forever, but also the genetic variety that lets them adapt to changes in the environment. The loss of one species is likely to have a knock on effect on other species in that area, for example if a certain nectar rich plant is lost, the insects that feed on that plant will decline, the birds that feed on those insects will also decline, then because there are fewer birds their seed dispersal function will be reduced, so the number of other plants will be effected aswell, then other species may also be effected by this. It is very difficult to predict the outcome of a species extinction because even at a local level the connections between species - the web of life - is very complex.

THE IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

2007-09-19T14:14:00.000-07:00

t the ecosystem level, biodiversity provides the conditions and drives the processes that sustain the global economy – and our very survival as a species. The benefits and services provided by ecosystems include:

>> Generation of soils and maintenance of soil quality
The activities of microbial and animal species – including bacteria, algae, fungi, mites, millipedes and worms – condition soils, break down organic matter, and release essential nutrients to plants. These processes play a key role in the cycling of such crucial elements as nitrogen, carbon and phosphorous between the living and non-living parts of the biosphere.

>> Maintenance of air quality
Plant species purify the air and regulate the composition of the atmosphere, recycling vital oxygen and filtering harmful particles resulting from industrial activities.

>> Maintenance of water quality
Wetland ecosystems (swamps, marshes, etc.) absorb and recycle essential nutrients, treat sewage, and cleanse wastes. In estuaries, molluscs remove nutrients from the water, helping to prevent nutrient over-enrichment and its attendant problems, such as eutrophication arising from fertilizer run-off. Trees and forest soils purify water as it flows through forest ecosystems. In preventing soils from being washed away, forests also prevent the harmful siltation of rivers and reservoirs that may arise from erosion and landslides.

>> Pest control
Around 99 per cent of potential crop pests are controlled by a variety of other organisms, including insects, birds and fungi. These natural pesticides are in many ways superior to their artificial equivalents, since pests can often develop resistance to chemical controls.

>> Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
Some 130 billion metric tons of organic waste is processed every year by earth’s decomposing organisms. Many industrial wastes, including detergents, oils, acids and paper, are also detoxified and decomposed by the activities of living things. In soils, the end product of these processes – a range of simple inorganic chemicals – is returned to plants as nutrients. Higher (vascular) plants can themselves serve to remove harmful substances from groundwater.

>> Pollination and crop production
Many flowering plants rely on the activities of various animal species – bees, butterflies, bats, birds, etc. – to help them reproduce through the transportation of pollen. More than one-third of humanity’s food crops depend on this process of natural pollination. Many animal species have evolved to perform an additional function in plant reproduction through the dispersal of seeds.

>> Climate stabilization
Plant tissues and other organic materials within land and ocean ecosystems act as repositories of carbon, helping to slow the build-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and thus contributing to climate stabilization. Ecosystems also exert direct influences on regional and local weather patterns. Moisture released into the atmosphere by rainforests, for example, causes regular rainstorms, limiting water loss from the region and helping to control the surface temperature. In cold climates, meanwhile, forests act as insulators and as windbreaks, helping to mitigate the impacts of freezing temperatures.

>> Prevention and mitigation of natural disasters
Forests and grasslands protect landscapes against erosion, nutrient loss, and landslides through the binding action of roots. Ecosystems bordering regularly flooding rivers (floodplain forests and wetlands) help to absorb excess water and thus reduce the damage caused by floods. Certain coastal ecosystems (salt marshes, mangrove forests, etc.) prevent the erosion of coastlines.

>> Provision of food security
Biodiversity provides the vast majority of our foodstuffs. The annual world fish catch, for example (averaging 100 million metric tons), represents humanity’s most important source of wild animal protein, with over 20 per cent of the population in Africa and Asia dependent on fish as their primary source of protein. Terrestrial animals, meanwhile, supply an array of food products: eggs, milk, meat, etc. Wild biodiversity provides a wide variety of important foodstuffs, including fruits, game meats, nuts, mushrooms, honey, spices and flavorings. These wild foods are especially important when agricultural supplies fail. Indeed, wild biodiversity guards against the failure of even the most advanced agricultural systems. For example, the productivity of many of the developed world’s agricultural crops is maintained through the regular assimilation of new genes from wild relatives of these crops. These wild genes offer resistance to the pests and diseases that pose an ever-evolving threat to harvests.

The annual world fish catch represents humanity’s most important source of wild animal protein

>> Provision of health care
The World Health Organization estimates that 80 per cent of people in the developing world rely on traditional medicines derived mainly from plants. In Southeast Asia, for example, traditional healers use some 6,500 different plant species to treat malaria, stomach ulcers, syphilis, and other diseases. Biodiversity is also critical to the 'formal' health sector of the developed world. A recent survey showed that of the top 150 prescription drugs used in the United States, 118 are based on natural sources. Of these, 74 per cent are derived from plants. Microbes and animal species have also contributed a range of medicines, including Penicillin (derived from the fungus Pencillium notatum) and several drugs – including anesthetics– derived from the skin secretions of tree-frog species. The medicinal importance of biodiversity is particularly impressive considering that only a tiny fraction of earth’s species have been thoroughly investigated for medicinal properties. The investigative process is continually turning up new pharmaceuticals of great promise. A recent study of cone snails, for example, has identified a painkiller that is up to a thousand times more effective than morphine, but without morphine’s addictive properties.

>> Income generation
Needless to say, the above services are all essential to the functioning of the global economy. Yet biodiversity also has great importance as a direct source of incomes and economic development. One example is 'bioprospecting' (the search for previously unknown biotic products of specific utility, such as natural pesticides, anti-fungal toxins and ‘oil-eating’ enzymes). Such discoveries join an impressive list of ‘miscellaneous’ goods provided by biodiversity, including many of our most important building materials, fibres, fuels, waxes, resins, aromatics, dyes and gums. Even in its wholly untapped state, biodiversity does great service to economies through ‘ecotourism’. People taking nature-related holidays contribute at least $500 billion per year to the national incomes of the countries they visit. Florida’s coral reefs, for example, earn around $1.6 billion per year through tourism alone.

>> Spiritual / cultural value
It’s no mystery why people are prepared to spend so much to get close to nature. Human beings instinctively derive aesthetic and spiritual satisfaction from biodiversity. Recent studies have begun to confirm what has always been known: our emotional wellbeing is enhanced by the proximity of natural beauty. The umbilical bond between humanity and biodiversity is reflected in the art, religions and traditions of diverse human cultures: a spiritual heritage that will be lost for all time if its basis – nature itself – continues to be destroyed.

Further information:

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (PDF)
Comprehensive analysis of the range and importance of the 'services' provided by ecosystems and biodiversity.

say NO to sharkfins

2007-09-18T23:24:00.000-07:00

say NO to shark fins

chinese new year is around the corner and everyone’s looking around for snazzy places to have reunion dinners, ya. here’s something to keep in mind while deciding on the menu this year: say NO to shark fins!
there are two enormous reasons why we should stay clear of shark fins and the soup which is a so-called ‘delicacy.’ firstly, where health is concerned, the shark’s fin has close to zero nutrition value and contains the poisonous metal chemical mercury.
that’s right, sharks concentrate mercury content in their bodies in the fin areas. sometimes even up to seven times over the FDA safety limit for consumables or up to 5.84 ppm of mercury (maximum permitted levels in Hong Kong are only 0.5 ppm). the stuff in that bowl of shark fin soup is the same liquid you find in a thermometer tube. remember how the mercury expand in the thermometer when exposed to high temperatures? now can you imagine the same thing happening in you blood veins? another fact also would be that once consumed, you body cannot dispel the mercury. its going to be in you body forever.
and seriously, does shark fins really taste like anything at all? they’re like tasteless jelly and what flavours them is the soup and all that MSG. you can actually taste the chicken and the fish sauce and all the herbs and all, but there is honestly no real taste to shark fins at all. in all actuality, it is there just for the heck of being there.
secondly, and what by right should be the greater reason to not buy and eat shark fins, is because of the cruel way they are harvested. because of its demand in the market and the price they can fetch in restaurants all over the world, over a hundred million sharks are killed every year for their fins.
when caught, their fins are cut, and the bodies of the sharks are thrown back into the water. the sharks are still alive at this point but without their fins, the sharks suffer and die a very slow and painful death by sinking at the bottom of the sea and drowning. sharks are creatures that need to keep moving in order to live. their inability to navigate because of their missing fins kill them. can you imagine that, a whole shark dies just for one lousy fin? this method of shark fin harvesting is called “finning.” it should be illegal but that is how just about all of our shark fins come from.
of course, we kill chickens and cows and eat them too, but sharks are in a whole different league altogether. for one thing, sharks do not procreate the way rabbits do. in fact for most shark species, their breeding habits are still a wonderful mystery to marine scientists. overfishing where sharks are concerned is a serious environmental threat, listing sharks as among some of the most endangered creatures in the world.

KHAIRUL NAZRI BIN HJ YAAKUB
SES 050276

Conserving the Earth's vitality(Biodiversity,speciec and protecting area)

2007-09-17T20:03:00.000-07:00

Biodiversity, meaning the range of variation in life on earth, is at the centre of IUCN's work, though in the past the Union has addressed it more through component parts, such as species and ecosystems, than as an integrated issue.

In mid-1993, IUCN established an expanded Biodiversity Programme. This grew out of the joint work with the World Resources Institute and UNEP to prepare the 1992 Global Biodiversity Strategy. The aim of the Programme is to help countries design the policies and build the institutions they need to conserve biodiversity and to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity, which came into force on 29 December 1993.

One focus of the Programme is on the economics of biodiversity, a theme of great importance in the Convention but neglected by many conservation groups.

The Programme will also emphasize the link between cultural and natural biodiversity, showing how local knowledge is vital in using and conserving natural resources. At the delivery end, it will boost IUCN's work in helping training courses: in 1993 the Chief Biodiversity Officer contributed to over 12 such courses around the world. Two highlights stand out. First, the Programme established a Global Biodiversity Forum, which met in October 1993. The Forum brings people from all sectors together on neutral ground, so they can consider and debate the complicated issues in the Convention. IUCN hopes that the Forum may help develop informal, multiple solutions to the issues involved through partnerships between all the various interest groups.

Second, the Environmental Law Centre, working with the Biodiversity Programme, has prepared the draft of an explanatory guide to the Convention. The guide explains what the text of the Convention means, article by article, provides background information on the complex issues involved, and considers the implications for national action.

While the Biodiversity Programme addresses the broad picture, mainly at policy level, IUCN contributes to the nuts and bolts of biodiversity conservation through other programmes. Among the largest is the Species Conservation Programme, which provides expertise from over 5,000 volunteer experts in the network of the Species Survival Commission (SSC). Most of the volunteers serve on one or more of over 100 SSC Specialist Groups, each of which covers a group of plants or animals. But there are also six inter-disciplinary groups; for example, one is on captive breeding, another on the problem of invasive species.

The Commission prepares Action Plans for the threatened species in each of these groups of animals and plants. In 1993, Action Plans were published on zebras and wild horses, on seals, on old world fruit bats and on pigs, peccaries and hippos. This brings the total to 25 Plans so far, all on animal groups. A new edition of The IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals was also brought to completion during the year.

The Specialist Groups vary in their capacity to implement their Action Plans, but the growing trend is for them to look beyond just networking and outlining what needs to be done to ensure that action happens on the ground. In 1993, SSC raised funds to allow both the Asian and the African Rhino Specialist Groups to hire Executive Officers. Thanks to a large anonymous donation, the Marine Turtle Specialist Group will soon have a Secretariat. And to raise even more funds, an SSC Special Support Council has been formed.

Plants had been neglected in recent years, but in 1993 a Plants Officer at last joined the Species Conservation Unit at Headquarters. A Plant Conservation Task Force met in November to consider how to develop IUCN's work on plants, which was one of its stronger themes in the past. Also in 1993, IUCN published, in partnership with the World Health Organization (WHO) and WWF, Guidelines on the Conservation of Medicinal Plants. With WHO as one of the authors, these guidelines provide a powerful lever to draw Ministries of Health into the conservation of plants, especially those needed for primary health care.

As before, a major part of the work is helping to implement the complicated Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Under the Significant Trade Project, SSC and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre have reviewed all animal species listed on the CITES Appendices thought to be in danger of harmful trade and made recommendations to the CITES Animals Committee. The Programme prepared for the CITES Secretariat a major report that proposes new criteria for listing species on the Convention. IUCN is also a joint partner, with WWF, in TRAFFIC, an international operation to monitor trade in plants and animals. Like IUCN, TRAFFIC works through a decentralized network around the world, with five Regional Offices, four National Offices, and National Representatives in a further five countries. In 1993, TRAFFIC prepared its own strategic plan, now being considered by a joint IUCN and WWF working group.

The Sustainable Use of Wildlife Programme is closely associated with the Species Conservation Programme and the TRAFFIC operation. In 1993 it continued to develop the text of its guidelines for sustainable use of wild species. It also works closely with IUCN members and with Regional and Country Offices to enable them to respond to issues on sustainable use of wild species. In Chile, for example, the Programme helped the Government prepare a management plan for the sustainable use of vicuna fibre, working with the Aymara people who live alongside the vicuna. Much work has been done to develop proposals for similar projects around the world, notably in Mali, Niger, Pakistan, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Laos and the Philippines.

The Programme can also help with species traded under CITES. The CITES Secretariat had identified Indonesia, Guyana and Senegal as having serious problems in controlling the harvest of certain species. Each of the three Governments asked for lUCN's help--for example by field surveys and consultative workshops. The Programme works to increase the capacity of governments to tackle such problems and works with them to ensure such harvests are sustainable.

Establishing and managing protected areas is one of the most important ways of conserving biodiversity. To encourage and support this, IUCN has a long-established Protected Areas Programme, which works closely with the Species Conservation and Biodiversity Programmes. This Programme is led by the Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA), and supported by the staff of the Protected Areas Unit at Headquarters.

A priority for 1993 was to make available the results of the very successful World Parks Congress held in 1992. A short and easily readable book of proceedings was published, entitled Parks for Life, which includes the Caracas Action Plan, the Recommendations of the Congress and summaries of the 49 different Workshops held. Four other books arising from the Congress were published or are in press, and further titles are in preparation.

The Caracas Action Plan, developed at the Congress, calls for the preparation of Regional Action Plans as the best way to identify what needs to be done on the ground. In 1993, in addition to the plan for Europe (described later), the team started a Regional Action Plan for East Asia, which was discussed at a CNPPA meeting of over 260 participants in China in September, and also made preparations for Action Plans in South Asia and South East Asia. The work takes time, as the Programme believes in extensive consultation, so that participants feel they "own" the Action Plan and are committed to its goals.

The Programme has long argued for more and better marine protected areas, since conservation at sea has lagged far behind action on land. CNPPA is preparing a report for the World Bank identifying priority areas for conservation of marine biodiversity. Under a parallel initiative on mountains, CNPPA co-sponsored four regional meetings--in Kenya, Puerto Rico, New Zealand and the Czech Republic.

Another part of the work on protected areas is the Natural Heritage Programme, under which IUCN provides an independent evaluation of all the natural sites proposed by governments for protection under the World Heritage Convention. Due to the power and simplicity of this Convention, inscription on the World Heritage List provides a high degree of protection. IUCN's job is to make sure the List is restricted to truly outstanding areas and that sites have the fullest possible protection before being accorded World Heritage status.

Following IUCN field evaluations of 14 sites during the year, the World Heritage Committee accepted four large new sites onto the World Heritage List. These sites, from Japan, Mexico and the Philippines, total an impressive 616,000 hectares and were the subject of intense conservation debate. Their addition to the World Heritage List is the culmination of long campaigns.

The Natural Heritage Programme also helped establish several large new protected areas that may later become World Heritage Sites. Following a detailed proposal by IUCN last year, the Prime Minister of Pakistan agreed to designate a 300,000 hectare national park in the Karakorum Mountains--a sparsely inhabited area that includes K2, the world's second highest peak. In Canada, the Premier of British Columbia accepted a recommendation from the last IUCN General Assembly that the entire Tatshenshini-Alsek region be protected and nominated as a World Heritage Site. If granted World Heritage status, the million-hectare park will join four other national parks in the U.S. and Canada's Yukon to become the largest treaty-protected site on earth, covering an area larger than Costa Rica.

An important part of IUCN's capacity for sharing and exchanging information is the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, based in Cambridge, UK. The Centre, which is run as a partnership between IUCN, UNEP and WWF, maintains databases on habitats, threatened species, protected areas and wildlife trade. It provides a wide range of services to the Union; for example the IUCN Red Lists and Red Data Books, the Protected Area lists and directories, and a number of habitat atlases are compiled at the Centre. In 1993, the Centre started a process of strategic planning and also moved into a new building, which will greatly improve its ability to provide an effective service.

Ecosystems
The programmes on topics like species and protected areas are matched by programmes on specific ecosystems--forests, wetlands, and marine and coastal areas. The aim is to promote effective conservation and sustainable use of these ecosystems, both within protected areas and as part of the wider environment. Each establishes model field projects, usually with IUCN members, and uses the lessons learnt from these to develop general guidance on policy and management.
IUCN's long-standing Forest Conservation Programme remained active at the international policy level. The Union called for the International Tropical Timber Agreement, currently being renegotiated, to be broadened in scope and to be extended to temperate forests. IUCN argued that developed countries should not impose standards on developing countries that they do not accept for their own forests. The same line was taken in IUCN's joint submission with WWF to the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe. The double standards on forestry in Europe and North America are increasingly undermining forest conservation efforts around the world--North and South.

The Programme has also been evaluating its field projects, both to see what can be learnt from each on forest policy and to ensure that they are clearly targeted with well-defined goals. This year also saw publication of guidelines on the collection of non-timber products from the forest and on the promising concept of extractive reserves, following two workshops on this theme in the previous year.

The Wetlands Programme had a year of change and consolidation as it built on the recommendations from its mid-term review, conducted in 1992. The Programme is large and diverse: the core is a set of field projects in over 30 countries, most managed by wetland experts in the IUCN Regional and Country Offices.

In 1993, the Programme recruited a technical adviser in West Africa, who is supervising field projects for the Senegal Delta. A national wetland conference was held in Burkino Faso and an expert group set up for rivers and floodplains in the Sahel. In Asia, working with members and partners, the Programme organized national wetland workshops in Nepal and Vietnam, to produce Wetland Action Plans, and provided training on mangrove management in Vietnam. The Wetlands Programme Advisory Committee set up an expert group for European wetlands, to bring together scientists, conservationists and other experts, and to strengthen the links between East and West.

The 1992 review argued that the Programme should do more to draw out the lessons of its many field projects; to this end, a freshwater management adviser was recruited to the Headquarters staff. Publications are a vital part of this process: a further eight titles were added to the Wetlands Conservation Series this year, and two issues of the popular newsletter were completed: this is now sent to around 2000 members and partners.

During 1992, IUCN's Marine and Coastal Programme was reviewed by an external panel. The resulting report suggested that the main focus of the Programme should be to promote Integrated Coastal Zone Management, already an important and growing part of the work. The Programme has now prepared guidelines on this and continues to work with the regional programmes in designing and promoting a set of projects, in particular for Eastern and Southern Africa, for Central America and for the Mediterranean.

The Panel also recommended that the other main thrust of the Programme's work should be to help ensure that the use of marine resources is sustainable. In cooperation with the Kenya Marine Fisheries Association, the Programme held an international workshop on marine ecosystems and fisheries of the Western Indian Ocean, and is planning similar meetings for other fisheries.

A further recommendation was to give more cohesion to the network and to make sure that lessons learnt reach those on the ground. To achieve this, the first two issues of a Programme newsletter were published and the publication series was boosted; there are now 15 titles in print and a further seven are nearing completion.

Delivering vital services
Although all programmes in IUCN have a strong service role, five programmes in particular cut across traditional boundaries and are defined more by function and method than by region or theme. In 1992, the Director General brought these programmes together as a new Services Division of the Secretariat, with a new Director, and in 1993 appointed Coordinators for three of them. The new team is working to knit the Services together, and to develop a common approach. This is an important step for IUCN, which has tended to have strong theme and regional programmes, but has been less effective at integrating them together into a coherent whole.
At the core of the new Division is the Strategies for Sustainability Service, which is closely associated with the working group of that name in the Commission on Environmental Strategy and Planning (CESP). This Service is continuing and expanding IUCN's work in helping countries develop various forms of strategies, including National Conservation Strategies (NCSs).

To learn from the many strategies done so far and to plough the lessons learnt back into the field, the Strategies Service and CESP have established networks of practitioners in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Each of these networks has now met twice and has worked with the Service to prepare regional reviews of 30 different strategies.

Based on this experience, the Service and its networks are preparing a set of 12 guides on how to develop a strategy; three of them--on local and national approaches, and on monitoring and evaluation--are already in draft form. Also as part of this series, the World Resources Institute, IUCN and UNEP arc preparing a guide on how countries can implement the Article in the Convention on Biological Diversity which requires each State to develop a biodiversity strategy. By providing vital know-how and drawing on real experience, these guides provide valuable help to Union members.

IUCN's Environmental Assessment (EA) Service provides technical assistance to those commissioning or actually doing EAs. It can help define the scope of an EA and can seek out specialist expertise. Once a report is drafted, it can review the draft, to ensure that the report follows best available practice. And once the final report has been prepared, the Service can help all participants use it properly in their decision-making. During 1993, the Service helped with 20 such cases, for example preparing terms of reference for an EA on a proposed natural gas plant on the coast of Oman. Occasionally, the Service undertakes full EA studies itself--one example in 1993 assessed the environmental impact of government policies in Zambia to mitigate the devastating effects of the drought there earlier in the year.

The Service also strengthens national systems for Environmental Assessment, so that countries are less dependent on outside aid and expertise. Specialized training courses are provided to meet specific needs; for example, in 1993 a course was organized in Guatemala on how to develop EA practices. Increasingly, the Service is designing long-term, integrated programmes to build capacity, such as by preparing guidelines and by raising the awareness of senior government officials. National programmes of this kind are already underway in Nepal, Pakistan and Zambia.

The Environmental Law Service is part of the Union's long-standing Environmental Law Programme. The Law Programme is a joint effort between the IUCN Commission on Environmental Law and the Environmental Law Centre, based at Bonn, Germany. The Commission's volunteer network and the Centre's staff collaborate with partners all over the world in developing national and international law, sharing experience and exchanging information. In 1993, the Law Programme also helped with seminars and workshops in Bahrain, Chile, Costa Rica, Kenya and Tunisia. It gave fellowships to bring lawyers to Germany from Fiji, Mauritania and Zimbabwe. It also maintains the Environmental Law Information System (ELIS), which is one of the most comprehensive collections of material on environmental law in the world with over 115,000 citations.

The Environmental Law Service itself helps developing countries review and develop environmental legislation. The Service tries to encourage countries to pass laws that are realistic, matching the needs and capacity of the country and reflecting its culture and economic circumstances. To achieve this, the Service uses expertise from within the country, only using experts from outside to provide international and comparative experience.

Over the last three years, the Service has worked in more than 20 countries. During 1993, it completed reviews of environmental legislation in Argentina, Lebanon, and five countries of the South Pacific, and helped lawyers in Uganda draft an Environmental Protection Bill. It assisted legal initiatives in Botswana, Guinea-Bissau, Jordan, Mauritania, Mozambique, Pakistan, Romania, Solomon Islands and Syria--a diverse array of countries, each with particular needs for better environmental law.

Social Policy is one of the youngest IUCN Services. In 1993 it has been putting into effect the results of a review the previous year. This identified a new $3 focus for its activities, bringing social needs and concerns into the practice of conservation and development, especially at community level. It will do this mainly through projects of IUCN and its partners, in particular helping communities to ensure that the conservation work done meets local needs and approval.

At country level, the Programme prepared the proceedings of a national symposium in Bangladesh, examining linkages between population, environment and development, as part of the NCS approach. It helped Sri Lanka to enhance community participation in forestry and protected area management. And in Southern Africa it helped develop a training programme for extension workers on community decision-making.

An Indigenous People's Task Force met twice during the year. It reviewed a set of case studies on how indigenous groups manage natural resources and captured the lessons in a guide on how indigenous people can participate in strategic development.

The Environmental Education Service works closely with the Commission on Education and Communication (CEC). Drawing on the wealth of experience available, meetings of CEC networks in Asia and Europe reviewed the draft guide on strategic planning in education prepared the previous year. The Commission itself has regional networks of practitioners in environmental education. A meeting in India in February launched the Asian network, and in South America, a network of educators is coming together. A workshop in August brought together educators from IUCN's projects around the world--IUCN's field work provides some of the richest examples of effective formal and informal environmental education achievements.

Although also a service, Communications is a Division in its own right and was renamed Communications and Corporate Relations Division earlier in the year. The Division provides a range of services to Programmes, such as media relations, supervising the production and distribution of publications, and coordinating communications work at the regional level.

The Union's publications continued to increase, as shown by the many new titles listed on page 30. In particular, during 1993 three more titles were published in the illustrated atlas series in association with Mitchell Beazley--Wetlands, Deserts and the popular version of Caring for the Earth with the new sub-title "A Strategy for Survival." This is a condensation and partial rewriting of the original text, to make it more accessible to the average reader. Revenues from commercial sale of publications again reached a new high, while the vitally important free distribution programme (to institutions and individuals in developing countries) was maintained.

As well as producing the quarterly Bulletin and Interact, the Communications Division also started a new Focus series--short, provocative statements on issues of topical conservation interest--and expanded the concept of Resource Files and information leaflets on individual programmes. A Media and Information Relations Officer, appointed during the year, held two journalists' seminars at Headquarters.

The IUCN Library is creating a Conservation Information Network around IUCN's activities. Beyond providing access to basic bibliographic services--to be made available to all members on-line or on disk in due course-the Library is also linking into global electronic networks and establishing document and publications management capacity in Regional Offices.

In November 1993, the Communications Division convened a workshop that refined the idea of Communications Planning Frameworks, a process to help IUCN Programmes improve their overall effectiveness by clearer strategic thinking on communications.

Working in the Regions
As IUCN's Programme has grown in scope so too has the challenge of targeting it effectively at the needs of the members. To achieve this, and to take account of the variation in need and opportunity between different parts of the world, IUCN has given increasing attention to drawing up its Programme on a regional basis. In turn, the need to pursue the Programme effectively and at lower cost has led to a major decentralization of the Secretariat to Regional and Country Offices. The emphasis of the regional programmes and the decentralized Secretariat is upon partnership with the members--to make them stronger and more effective as institu

United States Supports "Heart of Borneo" Conservation Plan

2007-09-17T20:01:00.000-07:00

The United States applauds the vision of the Governments of Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei to establish a "Heart of Borneo" conservation plan that will help conserve 220,000 square kilometers of biodiversity-rich equatorial rainforest that straddles their shared borders and which constitutes a significant portion of the island of Borneo.

Secretary Condoleezza Rice announced a United States pledge of $100,000 to help advance this regional project focused on combating illegal logging and wildlife trafficking during her joint press conference with Malaysian Foreign Minister Syed Hamid in Kuala Lumpur on July 28, 2006.

The U.S. funds will be disbursed through the World Wildlife Fund and the International Tropical Timber Organization, in consultation with the three Southeast Asian countries, which announced their "Heart of Borneo" conservation plan in April 2006. The World Wildlife Fund is working with the three governments to finalize a "Heart of Borneo" Declaration for signature later this year.

This conservation project serves to significantly enhance U.S. international conservation objectives under the President's Initiative Against Illegal Logging (PIAIL) and the Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT). The PIAIL, launched in 2003, consolidates U.S. Government efforts, in alliance with industry and NGOs, to help developing countries improve forest governance and sustainable forest management. CAWT is a new international public-private partnership aimed at stopping the illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products.

Capturing Carbon Tips Cost-Benefit Balance in Favor of Conservation

2007-09-17T19:58:00.000-07:00

Image: COURTESY OF KAI CHAN AND PLOS BIOLOGY
California Conservation: The moist forests of Point Lobos State Reserve and the northern Santa Lucia Range are important for biodiversity, carbon storage, flood control, recreation and water provision.
Conservation often seems to boil down to preserving the environment versus economic opportunity. If a given patch of land is saved, then a farmer will go hungry. If a marine reserve is created, then fisherfolk will lose their jobs. But two new studies demonstrate that intact ecosystems offer a variety of economic benefits, and preserving the environment may do more economic good than bad.
Robin Naidoo and Taylor Ricketts of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) performed a classic cost-benefit analysis of the Mbaracay?Forest Nature Reserve in eastern Paraguay, part of the disappearing Atlantic woods of South America. In the past 30 years this protected region has lost 34 percent of its tree cover to agriculture and cattle ranching as well as timber harvesting. The researchers rated the economic benefits derived from five ecosystem services: sustainable bush meat hunting; timber harvest; bioprospecting for pharmaceuticals; carbon storage; and so-called existence value, or the intrinsic value of nature "as a source of wonder and inspiration," the researchers write in the paper presenting their finding published yesterday in PLoS Biology. As for costs, the researchers calculated this as the agricultural value the land would have provided if deforested.

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These costs ranged widely, as they were based in part on the probability that a given parcel of land would be converted to agriculture, but they reached as high as $927 per hectare in the easternmost portion of the reserve where soybean farming is present and profitable. On average, the overall cost hit $60 per hectare. The value of ecosystem services ranged widely as well: from $2 to $1,045 per hectare. Storing the carbon associated with global warming proved the most remunerative of the ecosystem services, providing roughly $378 of value over every hectare--despite a relatively low assumed price of carbon of $2.50 per metric ton. Bioprospecting delivered little benefit.

Image: COURTESY OF LAURA RODRIGUEZ, JUAN VIERA, ROBIN NAIDOO AND PLOS BIOLOGY
Mbaracayu Preserve: This satellite image shows that forests (dark green) are steadily being converted to pastures, croplands, and industrial soybean farming.
In the same issue of PLoS Biology, Kai Chan of the University of British Columbia and his colleagues examined the overlap between preserving ecosystem services, such as providing water or pollinating crops, and preserving overall biodiversity in the central coast region of California. They found that saving various ecosystem services would not preserve species--mostly because of the negative effects on crop pollination and forage production. But focusing on carbon storage, flood control, outdoor recreation and water provision as well as biodiversity protection delivered the least loss of species, according to the model. And preserving biodiversity would largely protect critical ecosystem services. "This [research] will help maximize the impact of scarce conservation dollars, allowing diverse partners to build common ground," Chan says.

Already, the Nature Conservancy, WWF and Stanford University have partnered to form the Natural Capital Project, an attempt to definitively assess the value of ecosystem services in the Sierra Nevada of California, the upper Yangtze River basin in China and the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania. By knowing the value of the natural world, the researchers hope it will become worthwhile to save it. "Efforts to save wildlife often play out within a win-lose framework that pits conservation against economic opportunity," Chan adds. "The management of both land- and sea-scapes will produce far greater benefits for people when we analyze ecosystem services in a systematic fashion."

Doubts Raised on Whether Anti-AIDS Drug From Sarawak Will Ever be Developed by Malaysia

2007-09-17T19:56:00.000-07:00

The Borneo Resources Institute (BRIMAS), an independent civil society organisation based in Miri, Sarawak recently doubted whether calanolide A, an anti-AIDs compound from the Bintangor tree in Sarawak, will ever be developed by Malaysia due to continuing research difficulties and the lack of public understanding of the project.

"The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre should be more transparent about what is going on with the first-ever anti-AIDs drug to be developed from Sarawak's biodiversity, including the difficulties encountered in how research work on the compound is being done, " said Mr. Raymond Abin, Executive Director of the Borneo Resources Institute (BRIMAS).

The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre is a state body created by the Sarawak State Government in 1998, to facilitate and to focus development efforts on Sarawak's biological resources, through bioprospecting agreements.

BRIMAS, a Miri-based organisation working on issues concerning the rights of indigenous communities to their resources and knowledge, have been monitoring the developments on the anti-AIDs drug, in spite of difficulties.

Calanolide A, the anti-AIDs compound discovered from the Bintangor tree, is commonly found in the forests of Sarawak.

The native communities in Sarawak are known to use the trunk of the tree for building materials while its roots, bark and leaves are used to cure stomach-aches and tooth-aches.

In BRIMAS monitoring work, reports has it that Malaysia will never be able to develop the drug by itself since the research component of the anti-AIDs project is running into stiff competition from different countries, including Japan.

Initially, the development of Calanolide A into a drug was done by an American company called MediChem Research. Later they formed a partnership with the State Government of Sarawak in 1996, a 50:50 joint venture company call the Sarawak MediChem Pharmaceuticals. Since then the Sarawak Government has financed the first stages of Calanolide A's clinical development.

The Sarawak Government is estimated to pump in USD100 - 200 million (RM380 - 760 million) for the development of the drug. In the recent Dewan Undangan Negeri (State Legislative Assembly) sitting, the Sarawak State Government has approved and additional loan of RM4 million into Sarawak MediChem Pharmaceuticals.

The Malaysian Elephant in Big Trouble!

2007-09-17T19:53:00.000-07:00

This article is a general introduction to Malayan elephants; the efforts being made to manage its population; what the future holds for the elephant and its habitat; and what we can do to help ensure its survival. The Malaysian elephant is actually a member of the Asian elephant species which is also found in India, Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia. The elephant is very adaptable, and inhabits almost all types of ecosystem. It is one of the most important of our animals, and its successful conservation will also ensure survival of most of the species which are found within its home range.
Elephants were at one time found in almost all of peninsular Malaysia, except on the coasts and islands. There were so many that 17th century records show elephants were exported to Java for work. Elephants have been used in history as modes of transport; as battle animals; and for moving heavy weights, as in clearing forests. In the early days of aviation they were even used to pull aircraft into position!

Records from 100 AD show that trade in elephant tusks were already taking place. The trade in ivory has been a major factor in the decline of our elephant population.

Another factor, especially in this century, which has been more harmful and drastic, is the opening of jungles for logging, agriculture and development. This has isolated elephants into smaller and smaller pockets of habitat, with no organised access to other areas. In pursuing the perceived economic needs of human beings, we have forgotten the needs of elephants and other flora and fauna.

The encroachment of mankind into elephants' habitat, without consideration of the elephants needs, resulted in elephants encroaching in turn on agricultural land. They broke down fences(even electrical ones) to range, and to eat crops. This resulted in elephants being shot and poisoned in large numbers. Many were trapped in steel snares which almost amputated them as they struggled to escape. By 1972, the elephant population was down to 500.

In 1972 the Protection of Wildlife Act was passed, preventing the killing, hunting, confinement, or trade of elephants and other endangered species. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) of 1975, was adopted by Malaysia in 1977. This banned, among other things, the trade in ivory.

It has been estimated that, taking into consideration the breeding rate, the mortality rate, the need for mixing of genes, etc., there need to be 2,000 elephants to maintain a healthy and stable population. The present population is estimated at 1,200.

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Behavior

The elephant is an intelligent animal, capable of excellent memory, and of solving practical problems. Elephants have crossed electric fences by pushing the wooden supports down, or by using branches to break the wires. Elephants can remember human individuals after one or two meetings. Despite their size, elephants are very gentle with humans and rarely harm them. Wild elephants can be tamed within a few weeks, and soon learn various commands.

Elephants are very protective of their herd, and females will sometimes become foster mothers for the young of others. They help their young to cross obstacles like streams, and allow them to escape first when their herd is surprised by humans.

They have a keen sense of smell, using their trunks like periscopes to find the source of a scent. Their hearing is quite good, but their eyesight is relatively poor. They make a lot of noise when foraging for food, flapping their ears and breaking branches, but can detect foreign noises immediately.

Herds, which can range from 2 to over 25 animals, spend most of their time looking for food and resting. They tend to range through established routes, capable of covering 15-20 kilometres in a day. They prefer easy routes, along banks of streams and rivers; but sometimes they travel along ridge-tops.

Elephants are vegetarian and have specialised molars with ridges for tearing up fibrous plant material. 60 species of plants have been recorded as eaten by Malayan elephants, their preference being shoots and young trees. Their diet includes palms, rattans, ferns, wild gingers, ficus trees, grasses, fruit trees. Of human agriculture they like young oil palms, banana trees, and vegetables. Contrary to popular thought, elephants do not rumble and crash around when on the move. Their feet are well padded, and they can move silently and very swiftly.

Young elephants reach sexual maturity at 8-12 years. The gestation period of an elephant is 18-22 months, and after the birth of the single young, the mother will look after it for two to three years, during which she does not breed. It is estimated that a female breeds on average once in five years.

The Malayan elephant has a potential lifespan of 70 years; but on average females live up to 40 years, during which they can give birth to five calves. If the present population is 1,200 animals, it is estimated that it would take 12 years to achieve a stable, healthy population of 2,000.

Malaysia: wind power can be harnessed for aquaculture, conference is told

2007-09-17T19:52:00.000-07:00

AQUACULTURE ventures should look into other energy sources like the wind as the rising fuel prices pose serious challenge for the industry's outlook, the Malaysian news site bernama.com reported.

Universiti Malaysia Sabah's (UMS) Vice-Chancellor Prof. Datuk Dr Mohd Noh Dalimin reportedly said in his keynote address at the International Conference on Coastal Oceanography and Sustainable Marine Aquaculture - Confluence and Synergy that the time has come to opt for multidisciplinary and high-tech industrial aquaculture by harnessing energy from the wind.

The industry should also be managed with a high degree of automation and robots that are robust enough for a high risk operations in open sea, he said.

Besides of using wind energy to run aquaculture project, he was reported to have said that scientists should also think how to make use solar radiations in generating power for aquaculture operations like hatcheries and grow-out systems.

The three-day conference is jointly organised by UMS, Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation and the Inter-Islamic Network of Oceanography.

www.fishupdate.com is published by Special Publications. Special Publications also publish FISHupdate magazine, Fish Farmer, the Fish Industry Yearbook, the Scottish Seafood Processors Federation Diary, the Fish Farmer Handbook and a range of wallplanners

Biodiversity and Socioeconomic Impacts of Selected Agro-Commodity Production Systems

2007-09-17T19:48:00.000-07:00

This study assesses the socioeconomic and biodiversity impacts associated with the production of selected agro-commodities in their production countries and areas. Selected agro-commodities are soy (in Argentina and Brazil), palm oil (in Indonesia and Malaysia), beef (in Argentina and Brazil), and coffee (in Honduras and Vietnam).

In each of the countries specific production areas and regions were selected, where production of the agro-commodity has shown strong expansion during the last 5 to 8 years. Using data and information on biodiversity and socioeconomic indicators available at the subnational level, a loss of biodiversity as well as a decline of critical socioeconomic indicators was observed in 54% of the studied production areas.

Because in the mid-1990s several production areas had lower values for important socioeconomic indicators compared to the national average, a widening of the gap between the socioeconomic situation in production areas as compared to the national average was found in 26% of the cases studied.

This corresponds to 59% of areas with a poor initial development situation. We found that factors explaining these patterns are characteristics of the commodities, macroeconomic and governance issues of the countries, as well as the history of the production area and whether production increase occurs through frontier expansion or intensification.

Overall these results contradict the neoliberal assumption that export-oriented development will generally stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty in the production areas.

Borneo yields another treasure trove of rare new species

2007-09-17T19:45:00.000-07:00

GLAND, Switzerland: As many as 52 new rare and exotic species of animals and plants have been identified in just one year on the Southeast Asian island of Borneo, shared by Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei, according to a report compiled by WWF.

Of these, 30 are unique fish species, two tree frog species, 16 ginger species, three tree species and one large-leafed plant species. The new discoveries bring the total number of species newly identified on the island, which is the world's third largest island, to more than 400 since 1994.

These new discoveries further reinforce the need to conserve the habitat and the species found on this island, said WWF Tuesday. They reaffirm Borneo's position as one of the most important centers of biodiversity in the world, said Stuart Chapman, WWF's international coordinator of the Heart of Borneo Program.

Scientists exploring the island have come across a miniature fish, which is the world's second smallest vertebrate, just measuring less than 1 centimeter in length. It is found in the acidic blackwater peat swamps of the island. Then there are six species of Siamese fighting fish -- one with a beautiful iridescent blue-green marking -- and a catfish with protruding teeth and an adhesive belly, which helps it to stick to rocks.

One of the plants identified during the study has bright white flowers and there is only a single leaf. The new species of ginger more than double the entire number of the Etlingera species found to date.

The Heart of Borneo program was launched two years ago, covering some 22 million hectares of rain forest land. Several of the species were found in a mostly mountainous region covered with equatorial rainforest in the center of the island. Conservationists are trying their best to protect the area from loggers, who have already cleared vast stretches of land for rubber, oil palm and pulp production. According to estimates, the average rate of deforestation in Indonesia is two million hectares per year.

The report said many of the peat swamps the study covered throughout Southeast Asia no longer exist and their fauna has become extinct. All the endemic fish species restricted to peat swamp forests of Borneo are thus highly endangered, it said.

Scientists feel that there could be thousands of other species, which are still to be identified and studied.

There are an estimated total of 15,000 plant species in Borneo, which makes it the highest plant diversity of any region on Earth. It also has the highest documented tree diversity in the world, at 1,175 species in a 52-hectare plot.

Borneo is also one of the two places in the world where the orangutan still survives, but unfortunately they are facing extinction because of the vast deforestation. The other threatened species in the island include clouded leopards, sun bears and endemic Bornean gibbons. The island also sustains at least 10 primates, 211 other mammals, some 350 species of birds and 150 reptiles and amphibians.

The three countries that jointly own Borneo -- Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei had declared their commitment to support a conservation initiative. However, a formal declaration to this effect is yet to be made.

Poison Control: Towards preserving the richness of Malaysia’s green heritage

2007-09-17T19:42:00.000-07:00

April 21: WORLD Earth Day, first celebrated internationally in 1990, initially started in 1970 as an environmental awareness event in the United States.

Today, it has become a powerful global catalyst for awareness and change.

This time around, World Earth Day is even more meaningful given the various issues relating to air and water quality now confronting Malaysia.

One of them is the state of our forests and its unparallel biodiversity. Reportedly, some of its flora and fauna are under threat.

According to the book, Malaysia Environment — Alert 2001, "a total of 614 known species of mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes and plants are threatened and dying out." We stand to lose our most valuable resources and heritage if the country's forests are further tempered with. One such real possibility is the plan to "develop" part of the forest reserve in Kepong where the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM) is located.

When discussing the forest, at least two aspects of biodiversity come to mind — genetic and species diversity.

The latter refers to the richness or variety of species in a region, whereas genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species. It covers distinct population of the same species or genetic variation within a population.

This is where the FRIM "scare" must be taken seriously since Malaysia could be deprived of a potential botanical garden of international standing, the Kepong Botanical Garden, FRIM said.

As it stands today, the Penang Botanical Garden is Malaysia's only gazetted botanical garden, and is the oldest. If we are serious about our green heritage as is the case of the Penang Botanical Garden, the country should have many more such gardens.

Created during the British administration in 1884, the garden today occupies a 30hectare site, nestled in a valley described by some as "an amphitheatre of hills" covered with lush tropical rainforests.

It is sometimes called the Waterfall Garden because of the cascading waterfall nearby. According to one source, the collection "has since become significant samples in the world's major herbariums." While some plants were brought from the famous Kew Gardens in England, many are local species. Among them are trees locally known as Seraya or Shoerea curtisii, after Charles Curtis, the architect and designer of the garden. Yet another name closely linked to the Penang green heritage is that of a local botanist, Mohamed Haniff (1872-1930).

Haniff's legacy can be clearly felt in a highly sought-after volume on Malayan economic plants — The Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula — which he co-authored with I.H.Burkill.

Citing an article by Mohd Nor Jamalul Lail in the second issue of Folia malaysiana (http://www.foliamy.com.my), Haniff was employed as a botanical apprentice under Curtis at the Penang Botanical Garden. Over the years, Haniff "made significant herbarium and living collections for the Gardens Department of the Straits Settlements." Several local plants were even named after him — Eugenia haniffii (Henderson, 1923), Dendrobium haniffii (Ridley, 1924) and Bulbophyllum hanifii (Carr, 1932).

In addition, the naming of one ginger family, the Haniffia (Holttum) was suggested to "commemorate" the late Haniff in 1950. This made Haniff the first Malaysian after whom a botanical genus has been named.

All these go to show how since over a century ago, painstaking efforts have been cultivated to preserve genetic and species diversity in this country.

In fact, of late, in Penang alone, an extensive population of Haniffia (Holttum) was discovered. Among them is another new variety, identified only in the state, and also named after Haniff, this time by C.K Lim, also mentioned in the same issue of Folia malaysiana, Interestingly enough, the first Earth Day allegedly started as teach-ins involving 20 million participants, addressing decades of environmental pollution. The event subsequently led to the US Congress to pass Clean Air and Water Acts, and the establishment of the US Environmental Protection Agency to research and monitor environmental issues as well as implement environmental laws.

By highlighting and recognising the works and efforts of Malaysians like Mohamed Haniff, similar events will take place among the present generation to safeguard our biodiversity. Names like Curtis and in particular Haniff should be kept alive during every Earth Day celebration to inspire us to protect and promote the richness of Malaysian green heritage in its totality — be it genetic, species, ecosystem and even cultural diversity.

Thus, in the same tradition as that of Malaysia's oldest botanical garden, the Penang Botanical Garden, we need to continue to create new gardens, for example the Kepong Botanical Garden.

Without such greeneries, not only is our heritage seriously endangered, so too is our survival recognising the intimate relationships and interdependency of our existence on our natural and undisturbed environment.

Bone Rooms, Bird Bodies, and Biodiversity Informatics

2007-09-17T19:30:00.000-07:00

Where in the world does the same grizzly bear perpetually whack the same leaping salmon -- both creatures frozen in shared savagery -- while children whisper and point only inches away? Some people believe that museums contain only musty air, stuffy docents, and pure boredom. However, tucked away behind a mysterious door marked "Museum Staff Only" is a dynamic and ever-growing resource few of us are lucky enough to see in person: the museum collection itself. Whether you imagine graybeards stirring up dust as they pin shiny beetles into tiny boxes or a sparkling modern facility, every museum's beating heart is its hidden collection of specimens and associated library of descriptive notebooks. These collections are anything but boring, and many are now online.

A stuffed albatross presides over the MVZ specimen collection, housed in dozens of metal shelves filled with hundreds of trays of preserved creatures.

Dust or no dust, it also may be difficult to guess how 100-year-old bird bodies could have any relevance to the geospatial industry or our lives in general. One visit to the consortium of Berkeley Natural History Museums (BNHM, bnhm.berkeley.museum), however, reveals that collections (worldwide) are data storehouses of tremendous relevance to researchers in such disciplines as biology, geomorphology, ecology, and climatology. A natural history museum, in particular, is not just a warehouse of dead creatures, but a spatio-temporal census of flora and fauna. Need to search 100 years of specimens for mammals collected in Colorado, sorted by genetic signature and mapped by evolving distribution? Museum curators teaming with in-house geospatial experts are enabling just such analyses by developing spatio-temporal specimen catalogs, taxonomic protocols, and online spatial visualization tools capable of geocoding even "fuzzy" data from historic textual references.

Chasing Critters What our industry typically calls geospatial data -- points, lines, polygons, raster grids, and so forth -- are either ink on paper or electronic zeros and ones. Usually, when we venture into the field to collect vector and raster data, we don't really bring anything tangible home. The street centerlines we digitize merely represent the streets -- we capture the bits and bytes, but leave the asphalt where it is.

Museum data are, quite literally, a different animal. Museum collectors note when and where they found the creatures they were seeking, but also often bring some critters home with them for further study and preservation. It's both the collectors' written records and the actual bodies, bones, and skins that fill a museum collection. (In comparison, a GIS lab seems a bit empty and sterile -- just a few posters and some humming machines.)

In the past, field biologists collected specimens with shotguns, leg-hold traps, or snap traps. Modern collectors are more likely to capture and release most of the animals they discover, keeping only enough specimens for positive identification and later reference (particularly when sampling small mammals, amphibians, or reptiles). Researchers may trap in the morning and then remove the animals' skins and stuff them with cotton in the afternoon. Back at the museum, they tag the skinned bodies and drop them in a tank of flesh-eating beetles that leave only bones behind. To capture the DNA, collectors save small slices of the animals' livers in vials of alcohol.

Figure 1 (click to enlarge). A page from one of Joseph Grinnell's 1918 notebooks shows his penciled map of gopher burrows in Siskiyou County, California. Grinnell's notebooks, which are now being scanned to create to a queryable Internet-based database, are rich in (spatio-temporal) textual references to historical ecologic conditions.

Some research calls for data about whole groups of animals rather than individuals, such as with bird population studies. In this case, naturalists simply observe and count, bringing home only photos and notebooks. The contents of the notebooks are data, of course, but the notebooks themselves may also become historic specimens over time. Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (MVZ), a member of the BNHM consortium, for instance, has journals from such collectors as Joseph Grinnell and Aldo Leopold (author of Sand County Almanac) that are as worthy of preservation as the specimen collections they describe (see Figure 1). Grinnell's highly detailed field notes established a system in the early 1900s that continues to this day at many museums. Specifically, Grinnell attached tabular data to each specimen using a consistent organizational template -- in other words, he pioneered a metadata standard for museum collections.

Part of that standard includes specific spatiotemporal metadata. For instance, Grinnell and his colleague, Tracey Storer, conducted a survey of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians from California's Central Valley through Yosemite Valley to Mono Lake between 1914 and 1920. They followed a transect -- one line cutting across many different ecosystems -- that they gradually navigated during six years of field work. As they captured and observed the creatures, the researchers noted both location along the transect and date of each capture. Today, nearly 100 years later, new curators at the same institution, Berkeley's MVZ, are following that same transect to detect changes in species abundance and distribution.

Such long-term comparison studies, however, raise issues about incompatible data formats. It's safe to assume that any modern field-collected data, even if not captured digitally, will ultimately be converted to digital format. Data collected before computers even existed, such as that in Grinnell's and Leopold's notebooks, are also valuable when making temporal comparisons with parallel studies today. Consequently, starting in 2003, the National Science Foundation (NSF) awarded MVZ a grant to scan Grinnell and others' 13,000 pages of field notes and 2,000 photos to a queryable Internet-based database. The notebooks' text will become searchable by specimen catalog numbers, names of collectors, scientific names, common names, places, and dates.

A tray of colorful South American bird specimens tagged with collection metadata.

Supporting the digitization effort, a program called BioGeomancer (www.biogeomancer.org) can accept even "fuzzy" textual spatial references such as "seven miles west of Davis," and automatically return a point location. BioGeomancer is the result of a partnership between the University of Kansas Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Research Center (KUNHM, http://nhm.ku.edu), Brazil's Reference Center on Environmental Information (www.cria.org.br), Yale University (www.yale.edu), and MVZ (www.mip.berkeley.edu/mvz). BioGeomancer's founders have named the service's capability "geoparsing," and like any well-designed Web service, it provides just that single function. The Web site's interface is consequently (deceptively) simple, offering users four text entry fields beginning with country, stepping down in scale through state and county, and ending with locality. The service will format geoparsed results as hypertext markup language, extensible markup language (XML), or a graphic map.

BioGeomancer matters to collectors, curators, and users of natural history specimens, because it extends the gazetteer concept to handle the grammar that biologists in the field commonly use to describe locations. Basic gazetteers convert place names of, say, cities or monuments into points. BioGeomancer's enhancement to the gazetteer concept is that it parses not just single place names but whole phrases, including locations at some distance and cardinal direction from a nearby city or monument. When hunting for specimens, collectors are seldom actually in the cities that gazetteers reference, but often refer to their position in relation to a nearby city or distant mountain peak.

Northern New Guinea montane rain forests

2007-09-17T19:29:00.000-07:00

This ecoregion is composed of the isolated montane forests (more than 1,000 meters (m)) of the Van Rees (to 1,430 m) and Gauttier (Foya) (to 2,193 m), Cyclops (to 2,158 m), Denake, Bewani (to 2,000 m), Torricelli (to 1,650 m), Prince Alexander (to 1,240 m), and Adelbert Ranges (to 1,718 m) in Irian Jaya, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (PNG). These isolated mountain ranges are all on the northern side of the Central Cordillera of the island of New Guinea. The climate of the ecoregion is tropical wet, which is characteristic of this part of Melanesia, located in the western Pacific Ocean north of Australia. Northern New Guinea is a very active tectonic area with a complex geologic history. The geology of this mountainous ecoregion is a mixture of metamorphic and Pliocene fine-grained terrestrial and marine sediments.

The vegetation of this ecoregion is generally tropical montane rain forest. Although they are subject to variable climates and topography, montane forests are smaller-crowned and have even more canopies than lowland hill forest. Tree densities can be high, and the shrub density is also high. Predominant canopy trees include Nothofagus, Lauraceae, Cunoniaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Lithocarpus, Castanopsis, Syzygium, Illex, and southern conifers. Nothofagus and Araucaria may grow in pure, dense stands. The levels of Myrtaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, and conifers increase with altitude. The conifers generally found above 2,000 m include Dacrycarpus, Podocarpus, Phyllocladus, and Papuacedrus in the canopy and emergent layer.

The open forests of the Cyclops Mountains, perhaps the most well-studied of the ranges, are dominated by Kania, Metrrosideros, and Xanthmyrtus, with Lithocarpus and Nothofagus at higher altitudes. Above 1,400 m, conifers (Phyllocladus, Papuacedrus, Dacrydium) dominate, with Podocarpus and Rapanea. At an elevation of 1,200 m, the Foya Mountains to the west are dominated by Araucaria cunninghammii, Podocarpus neriifolius, Agathis labillardieri, Calophyllum, and Palaquium. The Torricelli, Bewani, and Prince Alexander ranges consist of limestone and montane forest.

Biodiversity Features Tube-nosed fruit bat (Nyctimene sp.) in the Cylops Mountains, Irian Jaya, Indonesia. (Photograph by � WWF-Canon/Ronald Petocz)Overall richness and endemism are low to moderate when compared with those of other ecoregions in Indo-Malaysia. There are fifty-one mammal species in the ecoregion, with six species that are endemic or near endemic (Table 1). The mammalian fauna consists of a wide variety of tropical Australasian marsupials, including tree kangaroos, and a glider. The Cyclops long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus attenboroughi) was considered endangered before it was split from the Papuan echidna (Zaglossus bruijnii), and presumably would still be considered so because it is a focal prey item for humans. The northern glider (Petaurus abidi) is found nowhere else on Earth. The highlands of the north coastal ranges also harbor Scott's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus scottae), reputed to be the largest and most threatened native forest mammal in PNG.

Table 1. Endemic and Near-Endemic Mammal Species.
Family Species
Tachyglossidae Zaglossus attenboroughi*
Perorictidae Echymipera clara
Petauridae Petaurus abidi*
Macropodidae Dendrolagus scottae*
Muridae Paraleptomys rufilatus
Muridae Xenuromys barbatus
An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.
This area also provides habitat for a number of isolated and taxonomically distinct bird populations. The avifauna of the ecoregion has a clear Australasian flavor, including representatives of several Australasian families including Ptilonorhynchidae, Eopsaltridae, Meliphagidae, and Paradisaeidae. This ecoregion includes all of the North Papuan Mountains Endemic Bird Area (EBA) and portions of the Adelbert and Huon ranges EBA (the Adelbert Mountains) and the North Papuan lowlands EBA (the Van Rees Mountains). The ecoregion contains twelve endemic or near-endemic birds (Table 2). The North Papuan mountains EBA contains five restricted-range birds, including three found nowhere else on Earth. The Adelbert Range contains three restricted-range bird species. It shares Wahnes's parotia (Parotia wahnesi) and the olive-streaked honeyeater (Ptiloprora guisei) with the mountains of the Huon Peninsula, but the fire-maned bowerbird (Sericulus bakeri) is found nowhere else on Earth but this ecoregion. The rarest bird species in PNG, fire-maned bowerbird has the most circumscribed geographic range known for any species on mainland PNG. Both the fire-maned bowerbird and Wahnes's parotia (Parotia wahnesi) are considered vulnerable.

Table 2. Endemic and Near-Endemic Bird Species.
Family Common Name Species
Rallidae Mayr's forest-rail Rallina mayri*
Ptilonorhynchidae Golden-fronted bowerbird Amblyornis flavifrons*
Ptilonorhynchidae Fire-maned bowerbird Sericulus bakeri*
Meliphagidae Mayr's honeyeater Ptiloprora mayri*
Meliphagidae Rufous-backed honeyeater Ptiloprora guisei
Meliphagidae Cinnamon-browed honeyeater Melidectes ochromelas
Eopsaltriidae Smoky robin Peneothello cryptoleucus
Eopsaltriidae Green-backed robin Pachycephalopsis hattamensis
Cinclosomatidae Brown-capped jewel-babbler Ptilorrhoa geislerorum
Paradisaeidae Greater melampitta Melampitta gigantea
Paradisaeidae Carola's parotia Parotia carolae
Paradisaeidae Wahnes's parotia Parotia wahnesi
An asterisk signifies that the species' range is limited to this ecoregion.
Within this ecoregion, the Torricelli Range has one endemic butterfly species, making it a center of butterfly endemicity on the island of New Guinea.

Blyth's Hornbill (Aceros plicatus), Irian Jaya, Indonesia. (Photograph by WWF-Canon/Ian Craven)Several Centres of Plant Diversity correspond with the various ranges of this ecoregion, including the Mamberamo-Pegunungan Jayawijay (Van Rees and Gauttier) and Cagar Alam Pegunungan Cyclops in Irian Jaya, the Torricelli Mountains-Bewani Mountains-Prince Alexander Range in PNG, and the Adlebert Range in PNG. The Torricelli, Bewani, and Prince Alexander ranges have a flora that is estimated to exceed 2,000 species and includes the only endemic fern genus on New Guinea (Rheopteris cheesmannii).

Several endemic plants have been collected in the Cyclops Mountains, but in general the flora of this ecoregion is very poorly known. Ultrabasic formations are present in the Makanoi Range forests.

Current StatusMuch of the topography of this ecoregion is too steep for traditional logging activities, and the majority of the ecoregion is safe because of its inaccessibility. Twenty-six percent of the ecoregion is covered by five protected areas, mostly in Irian Jaya, although almost half of the ecoregion is in PNG (Table 3).

Table 3. WCMC Protected Areas That Overlap with the Ecoregion.
Protected Area Area (km2) IUCN Category
Unnamed [AA0115] 1,510 ?
Mamberamo-Pegunungan Foya [AA0115] 2,110 IV
Peg. Cycloop 210 I
Teluk Yotefa 90 IV
Mt. Menawa 2,150 ?
Total 6,070
Ecoregion numbers of protected areas that overlap with additional ecoregions are listed in brackets.
Types and Severity of ThreatsThe threats to this ecoregion include the potential for commercial logging if it becomes economically viable. The Cyclops Mountains are quite close to the main population center of Irian Jaya, Jayapura, however, and these hill forests are at risk from the town and a transmigration settlement in the area.

Justification of Ecoregion DelineationUsing Whitmore's map of the vegetation of Malesia and MacKinnon's reconstruction of the original vegetation, we delineated the large areas of distinct habitat types as ecoregions. The tropical lowland moist and freshwater swamp forests to the north of the Central Cordillera were placed in the Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp forests, and the montane forests in the Northern New Guinea montane rain forests. This ecoregion corresponds to MacKinnon's biounits P3e and P3j. Udvardy placed these ecoregions in the Papuan biogeographic province of the Oceanian Realm

Local Beetles

2007-09-17T19:27:00.000-07:00

THE Malaysian rainforest might harbour a beetle that could digest plastic waste. Or one that could be used to control crop pests naturally, without resorting to harmful chemicals. We might have such beetles in this country. No one knows because we still don't know enough here about these small yet important creatures.

Prof Mohamed S. Mohamedsaid and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia's green beetle collection, also known as the 'King Kong'.

And while scientists are frantically trying to classify the many species that exist, the beetles, like so much of this country's fauna, are facing destruction.

"Being plant feeders, beetles are at the front line of any habitat destruction,'' points out Prof Mohamed S. Mohamedsaid, entomologist and leaf beetle taxonomist at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia's (UKM) Centre for Insect Systematics in Bangi, Selangor.

Some species feed only on one type of plant. Destroy that plant and there go the beetles. This is why they make such good "indicator'' species - by sampling beetle populations, conservationists and scientists can track what's happening in the forest.

That's not all they're good for, of course. Indeed, while beetles might be easy to overlook, we ignore these creatures at our peril, for their importance in the natural scheme of things is underlined by their sheer numbers: there are nearly one million species of these creatures, making up a whopping one fourth of all species on earth.

While the bigger animals grab all the attention, these little creatures quietly go about their business of tending to the world's ecosystems.

They play a major role in pollinating plants; in fact, scientists theorise that beetles helped fuel the spectacular explosion of flowering plants during the dinosaur era (the Mesozoic).

It is also beetles that take care of nature's detritus by decomposing dead vegetation and animal waste. The humble dung beetle, for instance, rolls dung into balls that are buried for the consumption of its larvae.

Other species make excellent pest controllers: the descendants of a single ladybird beetle--those pretty orange and black beetles--can, in a single summer, eat nearly 200,000 of the aphids that destroy garden plants in temperate countries. Not a drop of chemicals needed.

"In Malaysia, there are 200,000 beetle species that have been described, but there are definitely more out there,'' says Prof Mohamed.

Eight years ago, the Centre for Insect Systematics made a start on identifying this magnificent diversity. Since then, Prof Mohamed and two colleagues have carried out extensive taxonomic activities, creating a sizeable collection of strange-looking bugs.

Leaf beetles from Borneo

Walk into the centre's rooms on the second floor of UKM's Biological Sciences building and you will be greeted by a strange, stale smell of mothballs and chemical solutions--sign of a busy taxonomic centre. "There are over 100,000 insect specimens at the centre,'' says Prof Mohamed as he opens up one cabinet to proudly show off his collection of leaf beetles, the species he specialises in.

In other cabinets, butterflies in bright colours and grasshoppers in hues of green are carefully arranged. There are close to 1,00 different beetle species, 500 butterfly species and over 250 grasshopper species as well as over a hundred cicadas. All are preserve-dried, pinned and labelled carefully for reference purposes.

It's taken Prof Mohamed close to 15 years to establish his collection of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), the second largest beetle family in the world after the snout beetle (Cucurlionidae).

You realise the collection is a labour of love when he describes how he used to go on collection trips all over the country during semester breaks.

For the past 10 years, he's concentrated on Kinabalu Park.

"As a result of the study, we know Kinabalu Park is represented by 163 species of leaf beetles of the subfamily Galerucinae.''

That includes three new genera (Borneola, Kinabalua, and Paraxenoda) and 25 new species. One of the new species, a brown beetle, has been named in honour of Malaysia's first Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman: Hyphaenia rahmani.

"The leaf beetles of Kinabalu Park are highly diverse. Based on the collection from an area called Sayap and from near the park headquarters (both highland areas), 108 species were recorded.

"This figure, however, is lower than the 176 species collected from the lowland forest of the Danum Valley Conservation Area (in eastern Sabah),'' Prof Mohamed says, reinforcing yet again how important it is to maintain the integrity of both Kinabalu Park and the Danum Valley Conservation Area.

If a large tract of forest is destroyed, he says leaf beetles there will be wiped out as they are unable to fly far to reach food plants in new areas.

To date, Prof Mohamed has identified 120 new species unknown to science--an attribute of this country's rich biodiversity, he says proudly.

All this new information is being recorded in the centre's journal, Serangga, which began in 1996 and which focuses on insect fauna from South-East Asia. Volume 6 is currently being put together.

While the journal is certainly a step forward in cataloguing this country's biodiversity, we would take an even bigger stride forward if we established a museum of natural history.

"A museum of natural history conducts research on species diversity and maintains collections of preserved animal specimens for research purposes. Most important of all, it helps research communities understand biological diversity,'' explains Prof Mohamed.

Malaysia has many museums that are educational but none that is research based. We did have one before WWII; the Federated Malay States Museum was established in Kuala Lumpur in 1906 when collections from the older Selangor and Perak Museums were merged. It was bombed on March 10, 1945, after which the ruins were razed and the National Museum erected on the site.

There's another compelling reason for establishing a natural history museum.

According to him, Article 7 of the Convention of Biological Diversity - which Malaysia signed in 1992 - stipulates the importance of identification and monitoring in conservation and the sustainable use of biodiversity.

"Without taxonomy, the provision in the article cannot be fulfilled. A natural history museum is the bastion of taxonomic activities, where taxonomy is fundamental in understanding biodiversity,'' he says.

Though he is glad that the Centre for Insect Systematics in UKM is expanding, he says it won't be long before they run out of space as their collection continues to grow.

"All countries are proud of their natural history museums and Malaysia should have one to value our biological heritage,'' he stresses.

"Some countries have collections not only from their own environment but also from other parts of the world. Many Malaysia specimens, for instance, have gone abroad,'' he says.

Since Malaysia does not have a natural history museum, many specimens studied and collected by foreign taxonomists have been deposited in their museums.

For instance, most of the beetle species found in Malaysia were described by Europeans and taken back to their countries during the colonial period. In fact, all those foreign taxonomist names in text books is one reason why Prof Mohamed was inspired to begin his leaf beetle collection.

He says a natural history museum is not only entertaining, but it also encourages people to love nature and helps them understand biodiversity better.

"There are hundreds of thousands of other animal species, particularly the invertebrates from terrestrial and aquatic habitats which have yet to be documented from this country.''

Besides, at the rate at which Malaysia's fauna is losing its natural habitats, a museum of natural history might be the only way of preserving lost biodiversity.

Country Report Says Malaysia Seeks To Rehabilitate Borneo Rain Forests Marred by Logging

2007-09-17T19:25:00.000-07:00

Malaysian authorities need 200 million ringgit (US$58 million; euro42 million) to replant trees and restore heavily logged forests that are home to thousands of orangutans on Borneo island, a news report said Sunday.

Forest rehabilitation efforts will focus on 4,000 hectares (10,000 acres) of logged jungles that are considered the "crown jewels" of environmental diversity in Malaysia's Sabah state in Borneo, Sabah Forestry Director Sam Mannan was quoted as saying by The Star newspaper.

An environmental restoration and management plan for the Ulu Semaga-Malua forests will be finalized by the end of 2007, requiring at least 200 million ringgit of funds from the federal government and private donors, Mannan added.

Conservationists say rain forests in Malaysia and neighboring Indonesia have increasingly shrunk in recent decades because of the spread of the timber industry and palm oil plantations. Malaysian officials have played down these concerns, saying that the clearing of forests is monitored and controlled under environmental protection laws.

The key objective of Sabah's forest rehabilitation plan is the conservation of 3,000 orangutans in Ulu Semaga-Malua, which also contains a wide array of wildlife and plants, Mannan reportedly said.

Sabah Forestry Department officials could not immediately be reached to confirm the report.

Wildlife experts have estimated that 13,000 orangutans live in the wild in Sabah, accounting for one-fifth of their total population. Sabah's forests are also home to other rare animals such as Bornean pygmy elephants and Sumatran rhinos.

A recent United Nations report said oil palm plantations are expanding so fast in Malaysia and Indonesia that almost no virgin forest will remain by 2022. If that happens, the orangutan could be virtually extinct in five years, it said.

Malaysia calls for sustainable expansion of palm oil plantations

2007-09-17T19:23:00.000-07:00

KUALA LUMPUR, Malaysia: Expansion of palm oil industry — which many hope will provide the fuel of the future — must be sustainable, environmentally-friendly and protect local communities, Malaysia's deputy prime minister said in a speech Tuesday.

Since the 1990s, the area under palm oil cultivation globally has increased by 43 percent, mostly in Malaysia and Indonesia, the world's No. 1 and No. 2 exporters of palm oil respectively.

"Based on current trends, the oil palm industry is set to continue to grow to satisfy global demand," Deputy Prime Minister Najib Razak said in a speech prepared for him at a bio-fuel conference. "However, it is important that the expansion be sustainable."

Najib did not attend the conference and his speech was read out a senior official of the Plantation Industries and Commodities Ministry, S. Vijayaratnam.

In the speech, Najib said it is necessary to develop a globally acceptable definition of sustainable palm oil production and use, as well as to implement better management practices.

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He noted that development of new plantations has led to cutting down large areas of forests, threatening rich biodiversity in their ecosystems. Also, use of fire to clear land for plantations has contributed to forest fires and haze. The clearing of vast tracts of land has also led to social conflicts between local communities and project proponents, he said.

While Malaysian palm oil is produced using sustainable practices, the "industry is open to collaboration to enhance its high standards," the speech said.

To underscore its seriousness, Malaysia has launched a Palm Oil Wildlife Conservation Fund with an anticipated outlay of 20 million ringgit (US$5.6 million; €4.2 million), he said.

The organization will fund ideas and proposals to enhance biodiversity linked to palm oil production worldwide, he said.

Palm oil and other bio-fuels are being touted as the fuel of the future to replace fossil fuels including petroleum.

Because bio-fuels emit 80 percent less emissions than fossil fuels, "the future is becoming clear," Najib said. "As oil prices continue to soar and supplies become depleted, bio-fuels are looking more appealing as an alternative transport fuel."

The government introduced a National Biofuel Policy in 2005, aiming to reduce gasoline imports and to shore up palm oil prices during periods of low export demand. The diesel-palm oil blend has been used in recent years to power selected electricity generators here.

Palm-oil blended diesel is a technologically proven fuel.

Officials announced last week that three Malaysian government-linked palm oil companies planned to merge to create the world's biggest palm oil business worth around 31.4 billion ringgit (US$8.66 billion; €6.5 billion). Shareholders have yet to approve the proposal.

SHES2050 Group 8

THE IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

CEs to promote biodiversity

Biofuels Damaging Ecosystems And Biodiversity

Drought Can Destroy Biodiversity

Parasites A Key To The Decline Of Red Colobus Monkeys In Forest Fragments

Biodiversity takes a hit

Marine Bioblitz uncovers biodiversity bonanza

Estimating the value of biodiversity

Carbon for forests will help Aceh recover from war, tsunami

Malaysia to step up laws on illegal logging

Malaysia Lifts Ban on Export of Monkeys - Report

World on Sustainable Development

Sustainomics and sustainable development

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Biodiversiti dan Peranannya Terhadap Keseimbangan Alam Sekitar

biodiversiti

Ke arah melaksanakan pertanian ekologi Berita Harian, 12 Nov 2002

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Two-headed turtle goes on display in Pa.

SUNDALAND

Unique and Threatened Biodiversity of Sundaland

UN names Noosa a "biodiversity museum"

DNA barcodes 'tackle disease, protect biodiversity'

Balancing The Biodiversity Account

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE “BIODIVERSITY: SCIENCE AND GOVERNANCE”:

World Food Day 2004 Highlights the Importance of Biodiversity to Global Food Security

Biodiversity of the coastal zone

Biodiversity partnership

Russian Biodiversity

Value of Biodiversity

What Lies Ahead?

The Economic Value of Ecosystem Services

The Services that Biodiversity Provides

The Loss of Species

Over Exploitation

Land Use

Our Dependence on Biodiversity

Do We Still Need Nature?

The Importance Of Biodiversity

An example of a Biodiversity Conservation Plan

Why Whales Developed Sonar

Sea Turtles' Mystery Hideout Revealed

The magnitude of biodiversity

Impact of Human Activities and Loss of Biodiversity in Freshwater Ecosystems in China

Biodiversity - What's the problem?

THE IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

say NO to sharkfins

Conserving the Earth's vitality(Biodiversity,speciec and protecting area)

United States Supports "Heart of Borneo" Conservation Plan

Capturing Carbon Tips Cost-Benefit Balance in Favor of Conservation

Doubts Raised on Whether Anti-AIDS Drug From Sarawak Will Ever be Developed by Malaysia

The Malaysian Elephant in Big Trouble!

Malaysia: wind power can be harnessed for aquaculture, conference is told

Biodiversity and Socioeconomic Impacts of Selected Agro-Commodity Production Systems

Borneo yields another treasure trove of rare new species

Poison Control: Towards preserving the richness of Malaysia’s green heritage

Bone Rooms, Bird Bodies, and Biodiversity Informatics

Northern New Guinea montane rain forests

Local Beetles

Country Report Says Malaysia Seeks To Rehabilitate Borneo Rain Forests Marred by Logging

Malaysia calls for sustainable expansion of palm oil plantations

Ke arah melaksanakan pertanian ekologi
Berita Harian, 12 Nov 2002