Sunflower Greens, the Super Food!
This article begins by presenting the nutritional value of sunflower greens and continues with step-by-step instructions on how to cultivate them at home.
Considering that sunflower seeds are almost 25% protein, it is no wonder that sunflower sprouts and greens, grown from these seeds, are nutritional super foods with few rivals. A mere 3.5 ounces of sprouted seeds contains a whopping 22.78 grams of protein! The same amount of chicken breast meat contains just slightly more protein at 26.25 grams. Sunflower sprouts and greens are a rich source of vitamins A, B complex, D, and E and minerals including calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus and zinc. In addition to these vitamins and minerals, sunflower sprouts and greens are a rich source of lecithin which helps break down fatty acids into an easily digestible water soluble form, and chlorophyll which benefits many functions within the body, including building blood supply, revitalizing tissue, calming inflammation, activating enzymes, and deodorizing the body. But if they are this good for you, they must taste bad? Wrong! Sunflower greens are considered a delicacy among gourmets and are known for a crisp nutty flavor.
So there is no confusion regarding terminology, sunflower sprouts are generally regarded as hulled sunflower seeds that have been soaked and sprouted for a day or so. Sunflower greens are the baby plants that result when unhulled seeds are grown in soil, generally for 7-8 days.
Sunflower greens can be grown indoors, without soil (in jars or trays). However for highest nutrient value, it is best to grow them in soil, and in natural sunlight. A spot near a sunny kitchen window works well. They can be grown in soil on any shallow tray, but it is best to use the plastic trays used by plant nurseries for growing seedlings because they provide proper drainage. For soil, a premium potting mix is recommended with a hand full of rock dust (including lime), and/or kelp powder added to enhance mineral content. Proper seeds for sprouting and supplies can be found by doing an internet search on “sunflower sprouting”.
Fill trays with one inch of soil, and if using standard 10x21 inch trays, spread one half cup of rock dust on top. Two cups of unhulled seeds can be sprouted in this size tray. Soak the seeds for 8 hours in two quarts of filtered water. Drain seeds and spread them evenly over the prepared soil. Cover with 3 layers of white paper towel and water well with a quart of filtered water. Keep the paper towel moist at all times. In dryer climates this may require watering twice a day. On the third day, the sprouts will be pushing the paper towel up and it can be removed.
The greens will generally be ready on day 7 or 8 (where soaking of the seeds is day 1). Be sure to harvest the greens before the 2nd set of leaves emerge, as they get very bitter after that. To harvest, cut the greens from the tray with scissors, and remove any hard hulls that remain on the greens. Sunflower greens will keep for 2-3 weeks in the refrigerator and are great on sandwiches and in salads.
Greens do well near a Sunny Kitchen Window
The Incredible Edible Sunflower
Monday, August 20, 2007
The Minerals Industry Can Enhance Biodiversity
The Minerals Industry Can Enhance Biodiversity
Differing levels of understanding biodiversity
issues result in a range of concerns for conserving
biodiversity and minimizing negative human impacts.
Most people have an inherent concern for the environment
and some degree of knowledge of the impacts of
living in a heavily degraded or polluted area. Few
people have absolutely no concern for the environment
or wildlife and would go to any degree of
degradation to make a profit. However, many people
do not have a good understanding of Oklahoma’s
biodiversity and how a small negative action that
appears to be insignificant may be magnified throughout
the natural community and ecosystem. Much of
the controversy over maintaining a clean environment
and conserving biodiversity stems from a lack of
understanding about natural community functions and
how easily they are degraded.
During recent decades, the American public has
become increasingly concerned with the loss of
natural communities and species. A variety of environmental
groups has publicized examples of habitat
destruction and pollution. Individuals or companies
that severely degrade the environment cast shadows
on industry as a whole as polluters and destroyers of
habitat. Government regulations enacted to reduce the
occurrence of such abusive situations are perceived as
meddlesome and extreme. Much of this has resulted
in a series of groups that have become polarized in
their views and tolerate very little movement toward
a workable solution.
Increasing public concern about the size of government
have been expressed and ways to reduce the
number of employees and taxes are being explored.
At the same time, the public continues to want a clean
environment and healthy ecosystems. Because governmental
regulations have been the traditional mechanism
for conserving biodiversity and the environment,
these goals appear to be mutually exclusive.
While the traditional method of conserving an
important natural community has been for a governmental
agency to purchase the land and manage it as
a wildlife refuge, the theory that these areas could be
managed as islands of biodiversity has, in most cases,
proven false. Changes in the land matrix surrounding
these islands have significant impacts on the natural
communities occurring within the boundaries. Species
have disappeared from many of these public areas.
Demands for multiple use of public lands (e.g., mining,
timber production, grazing, recreation) may
increase the stress on these areas.
All of these factors point out that if Oklahoma is to
conserve the biodiversity that makes it unique, all
Oklahomans must recognize their responsibility to
conserve biodiversity within their activities. Oklahomans
must find ways to incorporate biodiversity
concerns with our economic and recreational activities
so that they may complement, rather than oppose, one
another. Polarized stances must be relaxed so that
workable solutions may be found and implemented.
Because 95 percent of Oklahoma is in private ownership,
conservation efforts must work with private
landowners to find ways they can successfully manage
biodiversity. If the movement toward less government
continues, it will be increasingly important for individuals
and companies to implement measures that
complement biodiversity on a voluntary basis.
Although the importance of biodiversity to the
minerals industry may not be as obvious as it is to
some other fields, mineral producers have a number of
reasons to maintain high levels of biodiversity. Due
to past abuses of the environment by some irresponsible
operators, mining and petroleum producers have
experienced a lowered public image. Many people
view these industries as entirely destructive to the
environment. However, by integrating various measures
that incorporate biodiversity conservation into
these vital industries, this public image may be enhanced.
Examples where natural communities are
104 The Minerals Industry Can Enhance Biodiversity
Using native shrubs and grasslands can enhance
mineral operations and local biodiversity.
restored or used in an operation may be publicized to
emphasize that economic profitability and biodiversity
may act in concert. As companies include biodiversity
concerns in their operations during planning, implementation
and rehabilitation phases, public perception
and support for the industry will increase.
Proper planning of an operation is very important
in determining the ultimate impact on biodiversity.
Ideally, an initial survey of the biodiversity in the area
may be used to highlight the location for the project
most suitable to minimize its impact. An understanding
of potential impacts on the natural community will
enable the planner to identify alternative production
activities. The planner may wish to determine which
areas would be impacted least and would be the
easiest to restore. Production activities could be
concentrated in those areas.
Natural communities may directly benefit the
producer by performing needed functions. Diverse
areas are generally more stable than monocultures
during adverse environmental conditions. After being
established, a diverse native vegetative community
will provide more reliable erosion control during
droughts or floods with fewer costs for pesticides,
fertilizer and water. An adjacent buffer zone of
vegetation may slow the spread of a spill and lower its
impact on aquatic communities, also lowering the cost
o f c l e a n u p .
Vegetation also may be used to trap dust, reduce
noise, collect sediment and other materials in runoff
water, and provide windbreaks to reduce wind erosion
and drifting snow.
Restoration costs may be lower in areas of high
diversity than in monocultures, since populations of
plant species surrounding the site may naturally
recolonize the disturbed area. Generally, once an area
has been disturbed it may be more difficult to return it
to its original productivity, especially if it was supporting
an agricultural crop. Location of projects on
the fringe of such monocultures, rather than in a more
interior site, has benefits for biodiversity. Such a
location could be more readily restored to a diverse
plant community. These sites would promote increased
biodiversity and would not interfere or detract
significantly from continued management of the
remaining agricultural field.
Native species present in surrounding areas will
often voluntarily establish themselves on a disturbed
area. In these instances, opportunistic native plants
require only minimal encouragement to become
established on the disturbed site and begin the vegetative
restoration of the site.
Environmental regulations on minerals production
were enacted to remedy and prevent problems, the
difficulty of working within these regulations may
decline as biodiversity improves within the state and
nation. Improved biodiversity management and
restoration will slow or reverse declines in species
populations, resulting in fewer species being listed as
threatened or endangered and aid the recovery of those
currently listed. As natural communities are restored,
it should become less complicated to comply with
regulations and permit requirements
As companies and landowners better understand
biodiversity concerns, they will be more willing to
work to find solutions and comply with regulatory or
permit processes. People will become aware of the
concept of biodiversity and will begin to grasp how it
is important to them as individuals, companies and a
society. With this knowledge it will not seem as
burdensome to them to plan to accommodate ways to
improve biodiversity through their everyday actions.
They will be more willing to design workable solutions
to meld biodiversity and economic concerns.
Differing levels of understanding biodiversity
issues result in a range of concerns for conserving
biodiversity and minimizing negative human impacts.
Most people have an inherent concern for the environment
and some degree of knowledge of the impacts of
living in a heavily degraded or polluted area. Few
people have absolutely no concern for the environment
or wildlife and would go to any degree of
degradation to make a profit. However, many people
do not have a good understanding of Oklahoma’s
biodiversity and how a small negative action that
appears to be insignificant may be magnified throughout
the natural community and ecosystem. Much of
the controversy over maintaining a clean environment
and conserving biodiversity stems from a lack of
understanding about natural community functions and
how easily they are degraded.
During recent decades, the American public has
become increasingly concerned with the loss of
natural communities and species. A variety of environmental
groups has publicized examples of habitat
destruction and pollution. Individuals or companies
that severely degrade the environment cast shadows
on industry as a whole as polluters and destroyers of
habitat. Government regulations enacted to reduce the
occurrence of such abusive situations are perceived as
meddlesome and extreme. Much of this has resulted
in a series of groups that have become polarized in
their views and tolerate very little movement toward
a workable solution.
Increasing public concern about the size of government
have been expressed and ways to reduce the
number of employees and taxes are being explored.
At the same time, the public continues to want a clean
environment and healthy ecosystems. Because governmental
regulations have been the traditional mechanism
for conserving biodiversity and the environment,
these goals appear to be mutually exclusive.
While the traditional method of conserving an
important natural community has been for a governmental
agency to purchase the land and manage it as
a wildlife refuge, the theory that these areas could be
managed as islands of biodiversity has, in most cases,
proven false. Changes in the land matrix surrounding
these islands have significant impacts on the natural
communities occurring within the boundaries. Species
have disappeared from many of these public areas.
Demands for multiple use of public lands (e.g., mining,
timber production, grazing, recreation) may
increase the stress on these areas.
All of these factors point out that if Oklahoma is to
conserve the biodiversity that makes it unique, all
Oklahomans must recognize their responsibility to
conserve biodiversity within their activities. Oklahomans
must find ways to incorporate biodiversity
concerns with our economic and recreational activities
so that they may complement, rather than oppose, one
another. Polarized stances must be relaxed so that
workable solutions may be found and implemented.
Because 95 percent of Oklahoma is in private ownership,
conservation efforts must work with private
landowners to find ways they can successfully manage
biodiversity. If the movement toward less government
continues, it will be increasingly important for individuals
and companies to implement measures that
complement biodiversity on a voluntary basis.
Although the importance of biodiversity to the
minerals industry may not be as obvious as it is to
some other fields, mineral producers have a number of
reasons to maintain high levels of biodiversity. Due
to past abuses of the environment by some irresponsible
operators, mining and petroleum producers have
experienced a lowered public image. Many people
view these industries as entirely destructive to the
environment. However, by integrating various measures
that incorporate biodiversity conservation into
these vital industries, this public image may be enhanced.
Examples where natural communities are
104 The Minerals Industry Can Enhance Biodiversity
Using native shrubs and grasslands can enhance
mineral operations and local biodiversity.
restored or used in an operation may be publicized to
emphasize that economic profitability and biodiversity
may act in concert. As companies include biodiversity
concerns in their operations during planning, implementation
and rehabilitation phases, public perception
and support for the industry will increase.
Proper planning of an operation is very important
in determining the ultimate impact on biodiversity.
Ideally, an initial survey of the biodiversity in the area
may be used to highlight the location for the project
most suitable to minimize its impact. An understanding
of potential impacts on the natural community will
enable the planner to identify alternative production
activities. The planner may wish to determine which
areas would be impacted least and would be the
easiest to restore. Production activities could be
concentrated in those areas.
Natural communities may directly benefit the
producer by performing needed functions. Diverse
areas are generally more stable than monocultures
during adverse environmental conditions. After being
established, a diverse native vegetative community
will provide more reliable erosion control during
droughts or floods with fewer costs for pesticides,
fertilizer and water. An adjacent buffer zone of
vegetation may slow the spread of a spill and lower its
impact on aquatic communities, also lowering the cost
o f c l e a n u p .
Vegetation also may be used to trap dust, reduce
noise, collect sediment and other materials in runoff
water, and provide windbreaks to reduce wind erosion
and drifting snow.
Restoration costs may be lower in areas of high
diversity than in monocultures, since populations of
plant species surrounding the site may naturally
recolonize the disturbed area. Generally, once an area
has been disturbed it may be more difficult to return it
to its original productivity, especially if it was supporting
an agricultural crop. Location of projects on
the fringe of such monocultures, rather than in a more
interior site, has benefits for biodiversity. Such a
location could be more readily restored to a diverse
plant community. These sites would promote increased
biodiversity and would not interfere or detract
significantly from continued management of the
remaining agricultural field.
Native species present in surrounding areas will
often voluntarily establish themselves on a disturbed
area. In these instances, opportunistic native plants
require only minimal encouragement to become
established on the disturbed site and begin the vegetative
restoration of the site.
Environmental regulations on minerals production
were enacted to remedy and prevent problems, the
difficulty of working within these regulations may
decline as biodiversity improves within the state and
nation. Improved biodiversity management and
restoration will slow or reverse declines in species
populations, resulting in fewer species being listed as
threatened or endangered and aid the recovery of those
currently listed. As natural communities are restored,
it should become less complicated to comply with
regulations and permit requirements
As companies and landowners better understand
biodiversity concerns, they will be more willing to
work to find solutions and comply with regulatory or
permit processes. People will become aware of the
concept of biodiversity and will begin to grasp how it
is important to them as individuals, companies and a
society. With this knowledge it will not seem as
burdensome to them to plan to accommodate ways to
improve biodiversity through their everyday actions.
They will be more willing to design workable solutions
to meld biodiversity and economic concerns.
What is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
2.1 What is the Convention on Biological Diversity...
Deep concern over the rapid loss of biodiversity and the recognition of its important role in supporting human life motivated the adoption, at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, of the Convention on Biological Diversity, a legally binding global treaty.
The Convention has three main objectives:
the conservation of biodiversity,
the sustainable use of its components, and
the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
Participation in the Convention is nearly universal, with 187 countries* currently members, a sign that the whole world is well aware of the need to work together to ensure the survival of life on Earth. More...
* In 2007, the CBD was signed by 190 parties, including 189 countries and the European Community.
2.2 What worldwide target has been set for biodiversity?
In 2002, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention adopted a Strategic Plan, with the mission “to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level, as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”
This 2010 target was subsequently endorsed by the Heads of State and Government at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, and world leaders meeting at the 2005 World Summit of the United Nations reiterated their commitment to meeting the 2010 target.
In order to assess progress towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target, the Conference of the Parties adopted a framework of seven focal areas to guide action. For each of these seven focal areas, the Conference identified indicators for evaluating biodiversity status and trends, and outcome-oriented goals and targets, which act as sub-targets to the overall 2010 Biodiversity Target
Deep concern over the rapid loss of biodiversity and the recognition of its important role in supporting human life motivated the adoption, at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, of the Convention on Biological Diversity, a legally binding global treaty.
The Convention has three main objectives:
the conservation of biodiversity,
the sustainable use of its components, and
the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
Participation in the Convention is nearly universal, with 187 countries* currently members, a sign that the whole world is well aware of the need to work together to ensure the survival of life on Earth. More...
* In 2007, the CBD was signed by 190 parties, including 189 countries and the European Community.
2.2 What worldwide target has been set for biodiversity?
In 2002, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention adopted a Strategic Plan, with the mission “to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level, as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”
This 2010 target was subsequently endorsed by the Heads of State and Government at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, and world leaders meeting at the 2005 World Summit of the United Nations reiterated their commitment to meeting the 2010 target.
In order to assess progress towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target, the Conference of the Parties adopted a framework of seven focal areas to guide action. For each of these seven focal areas, the Conference identified indicators for evaluating biodiversity status and trends, and outcome-oriented goals and targets, which act as sub-targets to the overall 2010 Biodiversity Target
.1 What is the Convention on Biological Diversity...
2.1 What is the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)?
Deep concern over the rapid loss of biodiversity and the recognition of its important role in supporting human life motivated the adoption, at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, of the Convention on Biological Diversity, a legally binding global treaty.
The Convention has three main objectives:
the conservation of biodiversity,
the sustainable use of its components, and
the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
Participation in the Convention is nearly universal, with 187 countries* currently members, a sign that the whole world is well aware of the need to work together to ensure the survival of life on Earth. More...
* In 2007, the CBD was signed by 190 parties, including 189 countries and the European Community.
2.2 What worldwide target has been set for biodiversity?
In 2002, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention adopted a Strategic Plan, with the mission “to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level, as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”
This 2010 target was subsequently endorsed by the Heads of State and Government at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, and world leaders meeting at the 2005 World Summit of the United Nations reiterated their commitment to meeting the 2010 target.
In order to assess progress towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target, the Conference of the Parties adopted a framework of seven focal areas to guide action. For each of these seven focal areas, the Conference identified indicators for evaluating biodiversity status and trends, and outcome-oriented goals and targets, which act as sub-targets to the overall 2010 Biodiversity Target.
Deep concern over the rapid loss of biodiversity and the recognition of its important role in supporting human life motivated the adoption, at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, of the Convention on Biological Diversity, a legally binding global treaty.
The Convention has three main objectives:
the conservation of biodiversity,
the sustainable use of its components, and
the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
Participation in the Convention is nearly universal, with 187 countries* currently members, a sign that the whole world is well aware of the need to work together to ensure the survival of life on Earth. More...
* In 2007, the CBD was signed by 190 parties, including 189 countries and the European Community.
2.2 What worldwide target has been set for biodiversity?
In 2002, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention adopted a Strategic Plan, with the mission “to achieve, by 2010, a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level, as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth”
This 2010 target was subsequently endorsed by the Heads of State and Government at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, and world leaders meeting at the 2005 World Summit of the United Nations reiterated their commitment to meeting the 2010 target.
In order to assess progress towards the 2010 Biodiversity Target, the Conference of the Parties adopted a framework of seven focal areas to guide action. For each of these seven focal areas, the Conference identified indicators for evaluating biodiversity status and trends, and outcome-oriented goals and targets, which act as sub-targets to the overall 2010 Biodiversity Target.
Wednesday, August 15, 2007
Biodiversity
“Biodiversity” is often defined as the variety of all forms of life, from genes to species, through to the broad scale of ecosystems (for a list of variants on this simple definition see Gaston 1996). "Biodiversity" was coined as a contraction of "biological diversity" in 1985, but the new term arguably has taken on a meaning and import all its own. A symposium in 1986, and the follow-up book BioDiversity (Wilson 1988), edited by biologist E. O. Wilson, heralded the popularity of this concept. Ten years later, Takacs (1996, p.39) described its ascent this way: "in 1988, biodiversity did not appear as a keyword in Biological Abstracts, and biological diversity appeared once. In 1993, biodiversity appeared seventy-two times, and biological diversity nineteen times". Ten years further on, it would be hard to count how many times "biodiversity" is used every day by scientists, policy-makers, and others. While the history of this term is relatively short (compare it to other terms covered in this encyclopedia), it already has raised important, distinctive, philosophical issues. Some of these are entangled in the very definition of "biodiversity", an issue treated in the first sections below. A challenge is the reconciliation of process-based and elements-based perspectives on biodiversity. Overall, the major issue for biodiversity is how its conservation may be integrated with other needs of society.
1. Concepts of Biodiversity
The sequel to that first biodiversity book, naturally titled Biodiversity II (Reaka-Kudla et al. 1997), documents the rapid rise of the term "biodiversity" in importance and influence. But it also traces the study of aspects of biodiversity back as far as Aristotle. To some extent, biodiversity merely offers a new, emotive, term for some older ideas and programs. In fact, "biodiversity" is now used sometimes to mean "life" or "wilderness" or other conservation values. "Biodiversity" also has served on occasion as a catch-all for "conservation" itself.
The scientific literature illustrates how most any conservation activity might use the label "biodiversity". On the one hand, workers taking advantage of the acknowledged importance of the term have expanded its meaning to capture concerns at a fine scale, such as that focussing on a favourite single species. This focus might be referred to more accurately as one of "biospecifics". At the coarser scale, one important interpretation, discussed below, advocates a primary linkage of biodiversity to the maintenance of ecosystem processes - what might be called the "bio-processes" approach.
The nub of the problem of defining biodiversity is that it is hard to exclude anything from a concept that is taken so easily to mean "everything". Callicott et al. (1999) examined "biodiversity" as one of the current normative concepts in conservation. They concluded that it remains ill-defined, and that distinctions can be made between "functional" and "compositional" perspectives in approaching biodiversity. "Functional" refers to a primarily concern with ecosystem and evolutionary processes, while "compositional" sees organisms as aggregated into populations, species, higher taxa, communities, and other categories. Callicott et al. call for a better integration of these different perspectives, an issue discussed below [Integrating Process and Elements Perspectives].
Norton (1994) has argued that there will never be a single "objective scientific definition" of biodiversity, in the sense of a prescription for how to measure it. In fact, Norton claims that any increase in our understanding of biodiversity will make it less likely that there will be a single objective measure. This biodiversity pluralism is based on an argument that inevitably there are many different "theory bound" versions of biodiversity and many different ways to value it. This perspective is in accord with recognition of functional-compositional perspectives on biodiversity. For example, Norton (1994; 2001) points to recent emphasis on structure and process regarding ecological "health" or "integrity" that is seen as going beyond a conventional elements-oriented perspective for biodiversity. One cannot aggregate all these different versions of biodiversity. Instead, we are to "describe in ways appropriate given certain purposes" and the choice among these different biodiversity "models" will depend on what values are important to the decision-maker.
2. From Species Values to Biodiversity Values
2.1 Species Values and Triage
In developing ideas about the overall value of biodiversity it has been natural to draw on existing arguments about values of individual species (for review, see World Conservation Union 1980; Norton 1988). Commodity value and other direct use values have intuitive appeal because they reflect known values. But a key problem is that species need to be preserved for reasons other than any known value as resources for human use (Sober 1986). Callicott (1986) discusses philosophical arguments regarding non-utilitarian value and concludes that there is no easy argument to be made except a moral one. Species have some "intrinsic value" - reflecting the idea that a species has a value "in and for itself" (Callicott 1986, p.140) - and there is an ethical obligation to protect biodiversity.
A philosophical issue is whether such species values depend on a human-centered perspective. The "environmental ethics" entry in this encyclopedia [Environmental Ethics] notes that assessments of issues concerned with biodiversity allow for "commitment either to a purely anthropocentric or purely non-anthropocentric ethic". Regan (1986) argues that we need "duties that are independent of out changeable needs and preferences." Callicott (1986) sees the intrinsic value of species as not independent of human values, because such values can be linked to Hume's theory of moral values. Norton (1986) sees all species as collectively embraced by an environmental ethic that is anthropocentric.
Randall (1988, p. 218) has argued that preference is the basis for value and that it is possible to treat all species values as preferences of humans. Preferences-based approaches to valuation can provide economic (dollar) estimates of value. This valuation process may include methods for assessing and quantifying option values. A claimed advantage of such approaches is that the only good way to protect species is to place an economic value on them. Randall argues that such quantification is advantageous because the species preservation option will fare well when the full range of values is included in conservation priority setting.
The context for many of these arguments has been a consideration of various criteria for placing priorities among species for conservation efforts. These considerations have led to debates about the role of "triage" based on species prioritization. Triage recalls the medical context in which priorities are set for investments in saving patients. Applied to conservation, individual species are differentially valued and assessed relative to differential opportunity costs. The best conservation package is to be found through a process of calculating costs and benefits of protection of individual species.
This perspective is characterized as "post-positivist" because it recognizes biodiversity as inevitably value-laden - there is no one, correct, measure of biodiversity to be discovered but many, each having different values. Roebuck and Phifer (1999) lament what they perceive as current "positivism" in biodiversity conservation, described by them as based variously on processes of verificationism and falsificationism in seeking facts. They argue that biodiversity conservation is rooted primarily in ethics and we must not continue to back away from values and advocacy.
Biodiversity may be a catch-all for various aspects of conservation, but the fresh perspectives arising from recognition of "biodiversity" suggest possible unifying concepts. E. O. Wilson (1988) sees "biodiversity" as corresponding to a dramatic transformation for biologists from a "bits and pieces" approach to a much more holistic approach. Wilson describes this change in perspective as a realization that biological diversity is disappearing and, unlike other threatened things, is irreversible. Wrapped up in the term therefore is the idea of a "biodiversity crisis". Ehrenfeld (1988) similarly reinforces this idea of the value of diversity in the aggregate. He argues that diversity previously was never regarded in itself to be in danger, but that biodiversity now is recognised as endangered in its own right. The definition of "biodiversity" sometimes explicitly reflects these links to an extinction crisis. Takacs (1996) reviews cases where the definition of biodiversity is wrapped up in the idea of strategies needed to preserve variation. In accord with this perspective is a shift to a focus on valuing ecosystem processes. This focus arguably will ensure maintenance and ongoing evolution of these systems, and therefore all of biodiversity.
Holistic perspectives on biodiversity have emerged also through another important focus. For Wilson (1988), biodiversity captures the idea of a "frontier of the future", presenting a dazzling prospect of largely unknown variety, with unanticipated uses. Biodiversity is seen by many as a symbol for our lack of knowledge about the components of life's variation, and their importance to mankind (see Takacs 1996). These arguments suggest that core biodiversity values might be based more on what we do not know than what we do know. Biodiversity can be viewed as primarily capturing the two-fold challenge of unknown variety, having unknown value.
Anticipated future uses and values of the unknown are captured in the idea of "option values" (for definitions, see World Conservation Union 1980). Option value corresponds not just to unknown future values of known species, but also to the unknown values of unknown species (or other components of variation). This concept is at the core of biodiversity because it links "variation" and "value". Estimating and quantifying the largely unknown variation that makes up biodiversity is one and the same as quantifying corresponding option values of biodiversity. According to this emphasis, a basic definition of biodiversity might be expanded as: the variety of all forms of life, from the scale of genes through to species and ecosystems …so forming a "calculus" - a means for measurement and comparison - of option values.
Focussing on this core, unifying, aspect of biodiversity does not throw away the other possible "biodiversity" values that might be listed (process-based "resilience" of ecosystems, current commodity values of species, etc.), but facilitates integration of biodiversity's option values with those other values. These possibilities are discussed further in the section Integrating Process and Elements Perspectives.
Given that holistic approaches may integrate functional and compositional aspects, the following sections address these different biodiversity perspectives. The next section addresses the early attempts to address values of biodiversity as a whole that emerged from dissatisfaction with the "bits and pieces" focus on individual species. A later section, Alternatives to Unit-species, presents attempts to address some weaknesses of this initial approach
1. Concepts of Biodiversity
The sequel to that first biodiversity book, naturally titled Biodiversity II (Reaka-Kudla et al. 1997), documents the rapid rise of the term "biodiversity" in importance and influence. But it also traces the study of aspects of biodiversity back as far as Aristotle. To some extent, biodiversity merely offers a new, emotive, term for some older ideas and programs. In fact, "biodiversity" is now used sometimes to mean "life" or "wilderness" or other conservation values. "Biodiversity" also has served on occasion as a catch-all for "conservation" itself.
The scientific literature illustrates how most any conservation activity might use the label "biodiversity". On the one hand, workers taking advantage of the acknowledged importance of the term have expanded its meaning to capture concerns at a fine scale, such as that focussing on a favourite single species. This focus might be referred to more accurately as one of "biospecifics". At the coarser scale, one important interpretation, discussed below, advocates a primary linkage of biodiversity to the maintenance of ecosystem processes - what might be called the "bio-processes" approach.
The nub of the problem of defining biodiversity is that it is hard to exclude anything from a concept that is taken so easily to mean "everything". Callicott et al. (1999) examined "biodiversity" as one of the current normative concepts in conservation. They concluded that it remains ill-defined, and that distinctions can be made between "functional" and "compositional" perspectives in approaching biodiversity. "Functional" refers to a primarily concern with ecosystem and evolutionary processes, while "compositional" sees organisms as aggregated into populations, species, higher taxa, communities, and other categories. Callicott et al. call for a better integration of these different perspectives, an issue discussed below [Integrating Process and Elements Perspectives].
Norton (1994) has argued that there will never be a single "objective scientific definition" of biodiversity, in the sense of a prescription for how to measure it. In fact, Norton claims that any increase in our understanding of biodiversity will make it less likely that there will be a single objective measure. This biodiversity pluralism is based on an argument that inevitably there are many different "theory bound" versions of biodiversity and many different ways to value it. This perspective is in accord with recognition of functional-compositional perspectives on biodiversity. For example, Norton (1994; 2001) points to recent emphasis on structure and process regarding ecological "health" or "integrity" that is seen as going beyond a conventional elements-oriented perspective for biodiversity. One cannot aggregate all these different versions of biodiversity. Instead, we are to "describe in ways appropriate given certain purposes" and the choice among these different biodiversity "models" will depend on what values are important to the decision-maker.
2. From Species Values to Biodiversity Values
2.1 Species Values and Triage
In developing ideas about the overall value of biodiversity it has been natural to draw on existing arguments about values of individual species (for review, see World Conservation Union 1980; Norton 1988). Commodity value and other direct use values have intuitive appeal because they reflect known values. But a key problem is that species need to be preserved for reasons other than any known value as resources for human use (Sober 1986). Callicott (1986) discusses philosophical arguments regarding non-utilitarian value and concludes that there is no easy argument to be made except a moral one. Species have some "intrinsic value" - reflecting the idea that a species has a value "in and for itself" (Callicott 1986, p.140) - and there is an ethical obligation to protect biodiversity.
A philosophical issue is whether such species values depend on a human-centered perspective. The "environmental ethics" entry in this encyclopedia [Environmental Ethics] notes that assessments of issues concerned with biodiversity allow for "commitment either to a purely anthropocentric or purely non-anthropocentric ethic". Regan (1986) argues that we need "duties that are independent of out changeable needs and preferences." Callicott (1986) sees the intrinsic value of species as not independent of human values, because such values can be linked to Hume's theory of moral values. Norton (1986) sees all species as collectively embraced by an environmental ethic that is anthropocentric.
Randall (1988, p. 218) has argued that preference is the basis for value and that it is possible to treat all species values as preferences of humans. Preferences-based approaches to valuation can provide economic (dollar) estimates of value. This valuation process may include methods for assessing and quantifying option values. A claimed advantage of such approaches is that the only good way to protect species is to place an economic value on them. Randall argues that such quantification is advantageous because the species preservation option will fare well when the full range of values is included in conservation priority setting.
The context for many of these arguments has been a consideration of various criteria for placing priorities among species for conservation efforts. These considerations have led to debates about the role of "triage" based on species prioritization. Triage recalls the medical context in which priorities are set for investments in saving patients. Applied to conservation, individual species are differentially valued and assessed relative to differential opportunity costs. The best conservation package is to be found through a process of calculating costs and benefits of protection of individual species.
This perspective is characterized as "post-positivist" because it recognizes biodiversity as inevitably value-laden - there is no one, correct, measure of biodiversity to be discovered but many, each having different values. Roebuck and Phifer (1999) lament what they perceive as current "positivism" in biodiversity conservation, described by them as based variously on processes of verificationism and falsificationism in seeking facts. They argue that biodiversity conservation is rooted primarily in ethics and we must not continue to back away from values and advocacy.
Biodiversity may be a catch-all for various aspects of conservation, but the fresh perspectives arising from recognition of "biodiversity" suggest possible unifying concepts. E. O. Wilson (1988) sees "biodiversity" as corresponding to a dramatic transformation for biologists from a "bits and pieces" approach to a much more holistic approach. Wilson describes this change in perspective as a realization that biological diversity is disappearing and, unlike other threatened things, is irreversible. Wrapped up in the term therefore is the idea of a "biodiversity crisis". Ehrenfeld (1988) similarly reinforces this idea of the value of diversity in the aggregate. He argues that diversity previously was never regarded in itself to be in danger, but that biodiversity now is recognised as endangered in its own right. The definition of "biodiversity" sometimes explicitly reflects these links to an extinction crisis. Takacs (1996) reviews cases where the definition of biodiversity is wrapped up in the idea of strategies needed to preserve variation. In accord with this perspective is a shift to a focus on valuing ecosystem processes. This focus arguably will ensure maintenance and ongoing evolution of these systems, and therefore all of biodiversity.
Holistic perspectives on biodiversity have emerged also through another important focus. For Wilson (1988), biodiversity captures the idea of a "frontier of the future", presenting a dazzling prospect of largely unknown variety, with unanticipated uses. Biodiversity is seen by many as a symbol for our lack of knowledge about the components of life's variation, and their importance to mankind (see Takacs 1996). These arguments suggest that core biodiversity values might be based more on what we do not know than what we do know. Biodiversity can be viewed as primarily capturing the two-fold challenge of unknown variety, having unknown value.
Anticipated future uses and values of the unknown are captured in the idea of "option values" (for definitions, see World Conservation Union 1980). Option value corresponds not just to unknown future values of known species, but also to the unknown values of unknown species (or other components of variation). This concept is at the core of biodiversity because it links "variation" and "value". Estimating and quantifying the largely unknown variation that makes up biodiversity is one and the same as quantifying corresponding option values of biodiversity. According to this emphasis, a basic definition of biodiversity might be expanded as: the variety of all forms of life, from the scale of genes through to species and ecosystems …so forming a "calculus" - a means for measurement and comparison - of option values.
Focussing on this core, unifying, aspect of biodiversity does not throw away the other possible "biodiversity" values that might be listed (process-based "resilience" of ecosystems, current commodity values of species, etc.), but facilitates integration of biodiversity's option values with those other values. These possibilities are discussed further in the section Integrating Process and Elements Perspectives.
Given that holistic approaches may integrate functional and compositional aspects, the following sections address these different biodiversity perspectives. The next section addresses the early attempts to address values of biodiversity as a whole that emerged from dissatisfaction with the "bits and pieces" focus on individual species. A later section, Alternatives to Unit-species, presents attempts to address some weaknesses of this initial approach
Sunday, August 5, 2007
Vietnam Plan for Biodiversity & Resource Management
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Document source: [Version: 15 August 1997]
http://coombs.anu.edu.au/~vern/luat/luat.html
AVSL, GPO Box 161; BELCONNEN, ACT 2616 Australia
and Coombs Computing Unit, Australian Nat. Univ.
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THE GOVERNMENT SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM
No. 845/TTg Independence-Freedom-Happiness
Hanoi, 22 December 1995
DECISION OF THE PRIME MINISTER
Approving the Biodiversity Action Plan for Vietnam
Pursuant to the Law on the Organisation of the Government
dated 30 September 1992;
Pursuant to the Law on Environment Protection dated 27
December 1993;
According to the proposal of the Minister of Science,
Technology and Environment (MOSTE) in official Letter No.
2423/MTg dated 25 September 1995
DECISION
Article l. - Approval of the "Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP)
for Vietnam" with the long-term and immediate objectives and
the main contents as indicated in the attached document.
Article 2. - Implementation details
1. Activities must be implemented under a project format
with detailed objectives, contents, location, scale,
duration And outputs Project must be pre-assessed before
funding decision. Mid-term and final assessments are
necessary steps in the implementation process.
2. Responsibility of the Central Organisations:
MOSTE is the key Organisation ill implementing the BAP MOSTE
has the responsibility to contact and discus with the
concerned Ministries, sectors and local agencies ill
carrying-out the BAP step by step MOSTE shall submit an
annual report to the Prime Minister on the implementational
outputs of the BAP.
* The Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI), based on
domestic sources and foreign aid, following the main
objectives of the BAP and in close coordination with MOSTE,
has the responsibility to lay out annual imple1nentation
plans of each BAP objective for the related and local
agencies.
* The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD),
the Ministry of Fisheries (MOF) and the National Centre of
Natural Science and Technology are the major implementing
Organisations of the BAP. These organisation shall work
closely with MOSTE and MPI on the annual implementation
plans and inform MOSTE about the outputs of their
components. MOSTE shall collect this information and submit
an annual report to the Prime Minister.
* The Ministry of Education and Training; the Ministry of
Labour, War Invalids and Social Affairs; the Ministry of
Health and the State Committee for Ethnic Affairs and
Mountainous Regions should pay priority attention that the
related objectives and locations of the BAP are within their
Social-Economic Programmes and should discuss with MOSTE and
MPI any related issues.
3. Responsibility of Local Authorities:
The People's Committees of the provinces and cities directly
under the Central Government have the responsibility to
implement this Plan within their area.
The People's Committees of the provinces and cities directly
under the Central Government shall make their own plan and
discuss this with MOSTE, MPI and the concerned ministries on
implementation matters, informing MOSTE about the outputs of
their activities annually.
Article 3. This decision shall become effective as from the
date of its signing.
For the Prime Minister
Signed
Nguyen Khanh
Vice Prime Minister
VIETNAM NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
(Approved by the Prime Minister Decision No.845/TTg of 22
December l995)
Vietnam has been endowed by nature with an abundance and
diversity of ecosystems, species and genetic resources which
are generally regarded as biological diversity.
Investigations have shown that Vietnam is the home of 12,000
plant species of which 7000 species have been identified,
275 species of mammals, 800 species of birds, 180 species of
reptiles, 80 species of amphibians, 2470 species of fish,
5500 species of insects. Vietnam's biodiversity is
relatively unique as 10% of the world's mammal, bird and
fish species can be found in Vietnam while over 40% of the
local plant species are endemic and believed to be found
nowhere else but in Vietnam. In addition, many livestock
species have been domesticated and selected in this country
since thousands of years now.
In terms of economic value, all agricultural, forestry or
marine products, which come from the biodiversity resources
are estimated to bring about US$ 2 billion to the country's
revenue every year. In many places, especially in the
mountainous regions, the food and foodstuff sources,
medicine plants and essential source of income rely largely
on the biodiversity exploitation.
However, the national rapid population growth, the decreased
forest areas, the over-exploitation of the bio-marine
resources, the over-introduction of new varieties in
agricultural production, have led to the reduction or loss
of the ecosystems, resulting in the fact that 28% of
mammals, 10% of birds, 21% of reptiles and amphibians are
currently listed as endangered species. Once a species is
lost, it will never be recovered and this also constitutes a
loss of genetic resource. The speed of biodiversity
degradation is more rapid in our country than that in other
countries of the region.
Recognising the great economic, scientific, cultural and
social value that biodiversity can contribute to the present
and future development of mankind and being aware of the
full responsibility for biodiversity conservation, Vietnam
has joined many countries in the world to sign the
Convention on Biological Diversity which entered into force
in the middle of 1993.
In the 60's, Vietnam made the official initial steps to
conserve its nature. In 1972, the promulgation of the
Ordinance on Forest Protection led to the recruitment of
l0,000 full-time public forestry-inspectors to work at all
levels throughout the country. Since the 80's, the general
endeavours to protect the environment including the
biodiversity protection have been more intensive and
systematic.
In 1985, the Vietnam's National Conservation Strategy was
formulated. This strategy, the first of this kind being
developed in a developing country, was highly welcomed by
the world community.
In 1991, the Government approved the National Plan on
Environment and Sustainable Development the period
1991-2000. This plan served as a basis, leading to the
drafting and later on the adoption of the Law on
Environmental Protection in 1994, as well as to the
establishment of the Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment and Departments of Science, Technology and
Environment in all provinces.
At the national level, it is an imperative to formulate and
promulgate a National Action Plan on Biological Diversity.
1. REVIEW OF THE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY PROTECTION SITUATION
OF VIETNAM
1.1. The economic utilisation of species
The economic utilisation of species can be seen first of all
in the wood exploitation of between 1,3 - 1,7 million cubic
meters per year while other forestry products such as
rattan, canes, bamboo and fuel are also exploited for
economic purposes. About 100,000 tons of bamboo were logged
for the paper industry. Of the total national demand of
energy, 75% is supplied by fuelwood. It is estimated that
between 22 to 23 million tons of fuelwood are exploited
annually from the natural forests. Besides, 2300 flora
species and a number of wildlife fauna species are exploited
to provide medicines, food for human being and livestock,
raw materials for industries and handicrafts. A increasing
amount of products are being traded with the neighbouring
countries.
Every year, fishing products estimated at 1 million tons per
year, have provided one half of the total amount of the
national fauna protein. Between 60% to 70% are fish
exploited from the sea resource. About 20,000 to 30,000 tons
of fish, soft-shell turtles, frogs are provided by the
freshwater resource, while cultured fish also yields about
200 tons a year.
1.2. Threats to the biodiversity
With the gradual reduction of the ecosystems resulting in
the gradual loss of habitats, many species are facing the
danger of extinction. In Vietnam's Red Book, scientists have
listed over 300 fauna and 350 flora species as endangered
species facing the danger of extinction. This situation is
generally caused by:
* Over-exploitation:
The exploitation of wood and other forestry products still
poses a big threat even though there is now a strong limit
on the forest areas which are legally exploitable. The
large-scale exploitation of energy is hard to control and
poses the biggest threat to the biodiversity in many
countries. The forest quality and capacity have been more
and more reduced in the areas close to human residence. In
many areas, forests have been divided, becoming smaller in
size and separate from one another. Consequently, they can
no longer support and create the environment for the
abundance of species like before.
Over-fishing is also a fact of life that occurs throughout
the country. Moreover, the fishing methods are not applied
according to approved standards. Destructive methods have
even been in practice such as using traps, heck set-up,
small-meshed nets, dynamite and toxic substances in some
areas.
Coral exploitation is the highest concern in the Central
Coastal Area from Da Nang to Thuan Hai Provinces. The
exploitation of dead coral in the tidal areas to generate
raw materials for the cement production using dynamite (in
Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan) seriously damages the living
environment of many marine organisms and reduces the
capacity of erosion prevention in the coastal areas.
* Shifting cultivation and the encroachment of arable land
A number of ethnic minorities have practiced shifting
cultivation for generations. According to their practice,
the fields can be cultivated for some consecutive years then
abandoned for a few years as a fallow period to wait for
forest restoration before being subject again to the
slash-and-burn cultivation. This practice used to clear only
a small size of forests while it could help enrich the
species by providing habitats for new ones. Due to the
population growth, this practice is no longer stable and the
sequence of land use is gradually shortened with the
consequences of gradual deforestation. The immigration,
forest clearing for arable land or aquaculture, also
contributes to the gradual area reduction of the forest
ecosystems.
Shifting cultivation is also a reason for forest fire. Of
the remaining 9 million hectares of forests, 56% is fire
prone in the dry season. The forest areas being burned each
year are between 20,000 to 30,000 hectares, even 100,000
hectares in certain year. Deforestation resulted in a major
reduction in biodiversity.
* Water Pollution
Oil pollution is regarded as the worst disaster for the
marine environment. As a result of oil exploitation and sea
transport, the proportion of oil mixed with the coastal
water has often exceeded the permissible level of between
0.4 to 1.0 mg/l many times. Quang Ninh province also suffers
a serious problem of sedimentation on the coastal areas due
to coal and clay exploitation. Millions of tons of sand and
mud due to the dredging activities at the sea-ports (Hai
Phong dredges 3 - 5 tons per year) often cause the estuary
and coastal sedimentation which contain oil and toxic
substances, creating negative impacts on the coastal
ecosystems and marine organisms.
* The degradation of the coastal areas
The construction of coastal aquaculture ponds, land
reclamation from the sea to create fields for salt
production or for agricultural cultivation, human settlement
along the coastal areas often contributes to the reduction
of the tidal zones, the increase in the salinity, changes in
the sedimentation process, causing destruction to or serious
degradation of the tidal swamps. The large-scale
exploitation of sand and stones for construction and of
other mineral resources causes land erosion in the coastal
areas of the Southern Central Region and the reduction of
water resources, affecting the lower layer of the marine
ecosystems.
* The transition to the market economy
Changes towards the market economy mechanism have had strong
impact on the farmers. The farmers are now under pressure to
apply many new varieties and species in order to have the
produce yields that meet the current market demands. This
poses a great danger to the traditional varieties and plant
species which have long been suitable to grow in the local
climate and soils. They have the valuable phenotypes but may
be ignored by their failure, in a short- term perspective,
to meet the present market demands.
The present situation regarding the exploitation and
utilisation of species makes the biodiversity protection
task more urgent than ever before.
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE VIETNAM NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
2.1. The long-term objective of the Plan is to:
- protect the rich and unique biodiversity resources within
the sustainable development framework of Vietnam;
2.2. The immediate objectives of the plan are to:
* Protect the country's endemic ecosystems, the vulnerable
ecosystems which are now facing the danger of reduction or
destruction caused by human economic activities.
* Protect those biodiversity components which are now
subject to be over-exploited or ignored.
* Promote and identify the utilisation values of all
biodiversity components on the basis of sustainable
development of natural resources in order to serve the
country's economic targets.
3. MAIN CONTENTS OF THE ACTION PLAN
Biodiversity protection is a long-term task which needs to
be carried out by different 5 - year programmes. A number of
the following urgent actions should be included in specific
Plan:
3.1. Policies and legal issues
The Law on Environmental Protection passed by the National
Assembly provides the general guidance for the environmental
protection. However, many more by-law regulations and
supporting documents should be prepared in order to
strengthen the enforcement of the Law and other legal
documents.
Law enforcement is one of the pressing issues to which more
attention should be paid. This requires the strengthening of
technical and management capacity for the concerned
institutions, staff training is also needed for these
institutions. A number of laws and regulations should be
reformed while the introduction of economic instruments
based on the market mechanism as well as punitive actions
need to be studied and implemented.
The by-law regulations should deal with such issues as the
exploitation and sustainable use of natural resources, the
control of the trading in the rare species as well as the
unique bio- materials of Vietnam, pollution prevention and
control. These issues should be included also in the
regulations on environmental impact assessments.
The effective protection of biodiversity requires a
clarification, readjustment or strengthening of the
functions, and duties entrusted to the State management
organisations concerned as well as of the regulations on
those activities carried out by economic establishments that
have impacts on the environment. Therefore, priority should
be given to the sectoral review of the functions and duties
of the organisations which manage the protected areas.
3.2. Establishment and management of protected areas
3.2.1. Immediately establish and well manage the protected
areas with high biodiversity values. Planning and
enlargement of forest and forest land in 87 specialised
forests which have been identified. Primary priority should
be given to those protected areas of high biodiversity
values such as: Pu Mat (Nghe An Province); Vu Quang (Ha Tinh
Province), Hoang Lien Son (Lao Cai Province), Ba Be (Cao
Bang Province), Cat Ba (Hai Phong), Cuc Phuong (Ninh Binh
Province), Ke Go Lake (Ha Tinh Province), Bach Ma (Thua
Thien Hue Province), Nam Ca (Dac Lac Province), Chu Giang
Sinh (Dac Lac Province), Bi Dup (Lam Dong Province), Cat
Tien (Dong Nai Province).
Strengthen and develop the buffer zones surrounding the
protected areas, discourage intensive farming on sloping
land, gradually stop the shifting cultivation, stabilise the
life of the people and raise their awareness so that they
will voluntarily join the protection force.
3.2.2. Develop the planning and creation of a number of
important wetland areas in Ca Mau, or close to the Red River
delta, the bird colonies and the Tam Giang Lagoon, etc.
These areas are located outside the specialised forests but
close to human residence where the people have great demands
to exploit theses areas for such many different purposes as
aquaculture, coastal forests and waterway transportation,
etc. It is therefore necessary to pay special attention
right from the outset to the biodiversity protection of
these wetlands and to the prevention of contamination
sources, especially from the water and to the control of the
water over-drainage.
3.2.3. Build a number of protected areas for sea and inland
water bodies. As the sea areas with high biodiversity are
usually the ones that can provide high economic values,
priority should be given to the protection of those sea
areas that have highest biodiversity values.
3.2.4. Build gene banks of flora, micro-organisms and
domesticated animals. Supply genetic materials for
hybridising and selecting varieties to serve economic
purposes as well as to "ensure" the genetic sources in
nature. To enhance capacity of zoos which can serve as
places for sight-seeing, training and raising the general
awareness on the environment. These places are also useful
for scientific research, conservation of wildlife which are
endangered, and when conditions permit, these species should
be released back to the protected areas.
3.2.5. Organise integrated management of the coastal areas
within the framework of sustainable development. Many
activities in the coastal areas should be carried out in an
integrated manner, such as: developing protected forests,
mangrove forest exploitation, growing aquaculture, land
reclamation for farming, human settlement and coastal
industry. development, etc.
3.2.6. Enhance measures to protect agricultural
biodiversity, bring into full play the various forms of
"farming conservation"; encourage farmers to participate in
the common protection efforts; special attention should be
given to the conservation of popular traditional varieties
which have long been adapted to the local geography and
climate.
3.3. Awareness building
3 3.1. Utilise such mass media instruments as radio,
television, newspapers, posters, etc. to raise the public
awareness on biodiversity, encourage people to protect the
general benefits of biodiversity.
3.3.2. Provide necessary information through short
symposiums, study tours to biodiversity protection
institutions within and outside the country to help
management officers or policy-makers to have better
understanding and knowledge concerning the biodiversity
importance.
3.3.3. Carry out propaganda and dissemination of knowledge
and methods necessary for the rational use of endemic
natural resources for the ethnic communities so that they
can both exploit and protect theses resources. Encouragement
and technical support should be rendered to people so that
they can protect the traditional plant and animals for
medicines and transform gradually from their natural
exploitation methods to scientific ones by raising their
awareness of sustainable use of the natural resource values.
3.3.4. Prepare biodiversity education curriculum for the
school system which could be incorporated within the
biological programmes or the environmental education in
general.
3.4. Capacity building and staff training
3.4.1. Give priority to the training for officers who are
involved in the biodiversity management at all levels and
technical staff who are directly involved in enforcement. In
addition, training should also be given to the members of
mass organisations, associations and farming households who
participate in the protection of biodiversity.
3 4 2. Set up a national biodiversity database and a
biodiversity databank beneficial to the management and
research activities promote the international information
exchange concerning these issues.
3 4 3. Establish a system to monitor the changes in
biodiversity resources in order to timely provide necessary
information to the state management organisations.
3.5. Scientific research
Attention should be given to the following guidelines for
scientific and technological research:
3 5.1. Carry out research on technologies which can be
appropriately used in the rational exploitation and
sustainable utilisation of biodiversity resources. Give
priority to the scientific research on the exploitation
technology and the use of biodiversity components in
agriculture and pharmacy.
3 5.2. Carry out research on the criteria and standards to
evaluate the changes in biodiversity resources, using these
criteria and standards as the basis for the evaluation of
these resources values.
3.5.3. Study issues relating to bio-safety, ensuring the
safe reception and transfer of bio-technology.
3.5.4. Carry out research on and growing of precious and
rare sea organisms and forest animals that have high
economic values but are subject to over-exploitation and
facing the consequent danger of extinction.
3.5.5. Study biodiversity issues occurring in neighbouring
countries which have natural conditions similar to ours,
recognising that Vietnam and these countries have various
common demands in the protection of their mutual benefits as
well as exchange of technology.
3.6. Socio-economic issues
The crucial issue of the National Action Plan on
Biodiversity is to bring about the sustainable development
of the country, to examine and anticipate the interaction
between the Plan and the country's socio-economic conditions
in order to have appropriate adjustments. The plan must
create conditions for, and ensure the support of, the people
who live nearby the natural resources for their increased
benefits. Therefore, priority should be given to projects
which assist the people with the building of the buffer
zones, the application of advanced technological
achievements, upgrading of infrastructure, improvement of
the social welfare, so as to ensure the balanced income for
the people, thus preventing them from further encroachment
into the protected areas.
The socio-economic programmes managed by the line ministries
or branches and implemented in the areas adjacent to the
protected areas should be implemented in conformity with the
plan on biodiversity protection. The exploitation of Natural
resources must be carried out sustainability.
A number of new economic developments close to protected
areas or areas which have sensitive eco-systems will be are
subject to pay a lee for the environmental protection.
3.7. International cooperation
The fact that Vietnam has ratified the Convention on
Biodiversity creates a good basis for a broadened
international cooperation in this area. It is necessary to
appeal international organisations, foreign governments and
individuals, to provide practical technical training and
financial assistance for the step-by-step implementation of
this plan.
With regard to the neighbouring countries, for the mutual
interests of each country, it is necessary to strengthen
cooperation in the scientific research, exchange of
information and technology and to work together for the
protection and development of their biodiversity values.
4. ACTIVITIES NEEDED TO BE, CARRIED OUT IN THE PERIOD
l99C-2000
In the five-year plan from 1996-2000, based on the State
resources, efforts should be focused on the priority targets
in order to carry out the following actions:
4.1. Policies and legal issues: complete a system of by-law
regulations in order to create a legal framework for the
implementation of the Law on Environmental Protection and of
the Conventions relating to Biological Diversity:
4.1.1. Formulate regulations on the conservation,
utilisation, exploitation and exchange of genetic resources,
varieties and breeds with a view to:
* Manage rare and precious specious natural resources of the
country which have immediate and long-term practical
economic values.
* Protect the national sovereignty and act in conformity
with those international conventions which Vietnam has
ratified concerning these natural resources.
4.1.2. Coordinate all the existing laws and regulations on
the management, exploitation and utilisation, of biological
resources for whatever purposes with a view to:
* Identify the loop-holes and shortcomings of those
documents previously promulgated by different ministries or
branches.
* Reform and rectify these documents in order to make them
compatible with the new changes in the national economic
management mechanism and, at the same time, to ensure the
sustainable exploitation and utilisation of the biological
resources with a sustainable development approach.
4.1.3. Make public those less sustainable ecosystems in the
"sensitive" terrestrial and aquatic environmental areas and
promulgate corresponding protection regulations in order to
prevent the degradation or destruction of these ecosystems
as the result of adverse environmental impacts created by
industrial development.
4.2. Establishment and management of protected areas
4.2.1. Locate and enlarge the forest protected and land
areas in order to:
* Increase the size and acreage of each specialised forests
of the total 87 forests already approved by the Government.
* Legalise all land use documents concerning these areas.
4.2.2 Consolidate and establish the protected areas with
high biodiversity values which have been identified.
Priority for investment should be first given to these areas
because of their national and international high
biodiversity values. Along with the consolidation and
establishment of strictly protected areas, synchronised plan
should be worked out to develop the buffer zones so as to
stabilise the living conditions of the local inhabitants.
4.2.3 Carry out the selection, planning and establishment of
a number of important wetlands in the identified areas.
Special protection and priority should be given to these
areas as these areas are rich in biodiversity but very
sensitive to the environmental pollution and usually
associated with many economic activities.
4.2.4 Carry out the selection, planning and establishment of
a number of important marine reserves in the areas of Ha
Long Bay, the coast line from Khanh Hoa to Binh Thuan
Province, and in the Con Dao and Phu Quoc islands.
These areas are very rich in biodiversity, inhabited by many
marine species and directly interlinked with the protection
of the water resources and important fish grounds of the
country.
4.2.5. Consolidate and establish genetic conservation
centres for raising plants and animals, and micro-biological
organism aimed at protecting the precious and rare genetic
resources with high economic values and supplying genetic
materials for breeding.
4.2.6. Strengthen and upgrade the capacity for the zoos in
Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City in order to better use them as
facilities to educate people's consciousness of
environmental protection in general and biodiversity
conservation in particular. In addition, these zoos can also
be used as research centres to raise the rare and precious
animals which are facing the danger of natural extinction
and to release them back to their habitats when conditions
arise.
4.3. General awareness building
4.3.1. Keep the public constantly informed of the values of
biodiversity in order to enhance the population's awareness
of these values so that they will have better sense of
responsibility to protect the biodiversity resources.
4.3.2. Provide necessary information on biodiversity to
officials at all levels particularly officials at the local
levels in order to help them with better understanding of
the biodiversity values; at the same time these officials
should be assisted with information to make necessary
decisions concerning the protection of these natural
resources.
4.4. Capacity building and staff training
4.4.1. Organise short-term training courses, seminars within
and outside the country to strengthen the capacity and
professional expertise for the management and technical
staff at all levels and branches who are involved in the
biodiversity-related work.
4.4.2. Establish a national network of database on
biodiversity with a view to have a unified system of
database and information on biodiversity throughout the
country, creating favourable conditions for the general
capacity building.
4.5. Scientific research
4. 5.1. Conduct research and studies on technologies for the
sustainable exploitation and utilisation of biodiversity
components; priority will be given to those technologies
that could be used profitably in agriculture, medicines and
pharmacy aimed at better utilising the values of
biodiversity components and thus making practical
contributions to the achievement of the national
socio-economic targets.
4.5.2. Study the criteria and standards to assess the
changes of biodiversity components in order to develop a
long-term scientific basis for the protection, supervision
and assessment of the trends in biodiversity.
4.5.3. Study the issues relating to the safety of the
biodiversity values in the receipt and transfer of
technologies especially biotechnology.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The National Action Plan on Biological Diversity is worked
out to serve the long-term benefits of the country. It also
demonstrates to the world community our responsibility
towards the conservation of the common heritage of mankind.
All organisations, branches concerned are 0bliged to
implement this Action Plan.
Hanoi, 22 December 1995
Minister of Science, Technology and Environment
(signed)
DANG HUU
Document source: [Version: 15 August 1997]
http://coombs.anu.edu.au/~vern/luat/luat.html
AVSL, GPO Box 161; BELCONNEN, ACT 2616 Australia
and Coombs Computing Unit, Australian Nat. Univ.
------------------------------------------------------------
THE GOVERNMENT SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM
No. 845/TTg Independence-Freedom-Happiness
Hanoi, 22 December 1995
DECISION OF THE PRIME MINISTER
Approving the Biodiversity Action Plan for Vietnam
Pursuant to the Law on the Organisation of the Government
dated 30 September 1992;
Pursuant to the Law on Environment Protection dated 27
December 1993;
According to the proposal of the Minister of Science,
Technology and Environment (MOSTE) in official Letter No.
2423/MTg dated 25 September 1995
DECISION
Article l. - Approval of the "Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP)
for Vietnam" with the long-term and immediate objectives and
the main contents as indicated in the attached document.
Article 2. - Implementation details
1. Activities must be implemented under a project format
with detailed objectives, contents, location, scale,
duration And outputs Project must be pre-assessed before
funding decision. Mid-term and final assessments are
necessary steps in the implementation process.
2. Responsibility of the Central Organisations:
MOSTE is the key Organisation ill implementing the BAP MOSTE
has the responsibility to contact and discus with the
concerned Ministries, sectors and local agencies ill
carrying-out the BAP step by step MOSTE shall submit an
annual report to the Prime Minister on the implementational
outputs of the BAP.
* The Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI), based on
domestic sources and foreign aid, following the main
objectives of the BAP and in close coordination with MOSTE,
has the responsibility to lay out annual imple1nentation
plans of each BAP objective for the related and local
agencies.
* The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD),
the Ministry of Fisheries (MOF) and the National Centre of
Natural Science and Technology are the major implementing
Organisations of the BAP. These organisation shall work
closely with MOSTE and MPI on the annual implementation
plans and inform MOSTE about the outputs of their
components. MOSTE shall collect this information and submit
an annual report to the Prime Minister.
* The Ministry of Education and Training; the Ministry of
Labour, War Invalids and Social Affairs; the Ministry of
Health and the State Committee for Ethnic Affairs and
Mountainous Regions should pay priority attention that the
related objectives and locations of the BAP are within their
Social-Economic Programmes and should discuss with MOSTE and
MPI any related issues.
3. Responsibility of Local Authorities:
The People's Committees of the provinces and cities directly
under the Central Government have the responsibility to
implement this Plan within their area.
The People's Committees of the provinces and cities directly
under the Central Government shall make their own plan and
discuss this with MOSTE, MPI and the concerned ministries on
implementation matters, informing MOSTE about the outputs of
their activities annually.
Article 3. This decision shall become effective as from the
date of its signing.
For the Prime Minister
Signed
Nguyen Khanh
Vice Prime Minister
VIETNAM NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
(Approved by the Prime Minister Decision No.845/TTg of 22
December l995)
Vietnam has been endowed by nature with an abundance and
diversity of ecosystems, species and genetic resources which
are generally regarded as biological diversity.
Investigations have shown that Vietnam is the home of 12,000
plant species of which 7000 species have been identified,
275 species of mammals, 800 species of birds, 180 species of
reptiles, 80 species of amphibians, 2470 species of fish,
5500 species of insects. Vietnam's biodiversity is
relatively unique as 10% of the world's mammal, bird and
fish species can be found in Vietnam while over 40% of the
local plant species are endemic and believed to be found
nowhere else but in Vietnam. In addition, many livestock
species have been domesticated and selected in this country
since thousands of years now.
In terms of economic value, all agricultural, forestry or
marine products, which come from the biodiversity resources
are estimated to bring about US$ 2 billion to the country's
revenue every year. In many places, especially in the
mountainous regions, the food and foodstuff sources,
medicine plants and essential source of income rely largely
on the biodiversity exploitation.
However, the national rapid population growth, the decreased
forest areas, the over-exploitation of the bio-marine
resources, the over-introduction of new varieties in
agricultural production, have led to the reduction or loss
of the ecosystems, resulting in the fact that 28% of
mammals, 10% of birds, 21% of reptiles and amphibians are
currently listed as endangered species. Once a species is
lost, it will never be recovered and this also constitutes a
loss of genetic resource. The speed of biodiversity
degradation is more rapid in our country than that in other
countries of the region.
Recognising the great economic, scientific, cultural and
social value that biodiversity can contribute to the present
and future development of mankind and being aware of the
full responsibility for biodiversity conservation, Vietnam
has joined many countries in the world to sign the
Convention on Biological Diversity which entered into force
in the middle of 1993.
In the 60's, Vietnam made the official initial steps to
conserve its nature. In 1972, the promulgation of the
Ordinance on Forest Protection led to the recruitment of
l0,000 full-time public forestry-inspectors to work at all
levels throughout the country. Since the 80's, the general
endeavours to protect the environment including the
biodiversity protection have been more intensive and
systematic.
In 1985, the Vietnam's National Conservation Strategy was
formulated. This strategy, the first of this kind being
developed in a developing country, was highly welcomed by
the world community.
In 1991, the Government approved the National Plan on
Environment and Sustainable Development the period
1991-2000. This plan served as a basis, leading to the
drafting and later on the adoption of the Law on
Environmental Protection in 1994, as well as to the
establishment of the Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment and Departments of Science, Technology and
Environment in all provinces.
At the national level, it is an imperative to formulate and
promulgate a National Action Plan on Biological Diversity.
1. REVIEW OF THE BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY PROTECTION SITUATION
OF VIETNAM
1.1. The economic utilisation of species
The economic utilisation of species can be seen first of all
in the wood exploitation of between 1,3 - 1,7 million cubic
meters per year while other forestry products such as
rattan, canes, bamboo and fuel are also exploited for
economic purposes. About 100,000 tons of bamboo were logged
for the paper industry. Of the total national demand of
energy, 75% is supplied by fuelwood. It is estimated that
between 22 to 23 million tons of fuelwood are exploited
annually from the natural forests. Besides, 2300 flora
species and a number of wildlife fauna species are exploited
to provide medicines, food for human being and livestock,
raw materials for industries and handicrafts. A increasing
amount of products are being traded with the neighbouring
countries.
Every year, fishing products estimated at 1 million tons per
year, have provided one half of the total amount of the
national fauna protein. Between 60% to 70% are fish
exploited from the sea resource. About 20,000 to 30,000 tons
of fish, soft-shell turtles, frogs are provided by the
freshwater resource, while cultured fish also yields about
200 tons a year.
1.2. Threats to the biodiversity
With the gradual reduction of the ecosystems resulting in
the gradual loss of habitats, many species are facing the
danger of extinction. In Vietnam's Red Book, scientists have
listed over 300 fauna and 350 flora species as endangered
species facing the danger of extinction. This situation is
generally caused by:
* Over-exploitation:
The exploitation of wood and other forestry products still
poses a big threat even though there is now a strong limit
on the forest areas which are legally exploitable. The
large-scale exploitation of energy is hard to control and
poses the biggest threat to the biodiversity in many
countries. The forest quality and capacity have been more
and more reduced in the areas close to human residence. In
many areas, forests have been divided, becoming smaller in
size and separate from one another. Consequently, they can
no longer support and create the environment for the
abundance of species like before.
Over-fishing is also a fact of life that occurs throughout
the country. Moreover, the fishing methods are not applied
according to approved standards. Destructive methods have
even been in practice such as using traps, heck set-up,
small-meshed nets, dynamite and toxic substances in some
areas.
Coral exploitation is the highest concern in the Central
Coastal Area from Da Nang to Thuan Hai Provinces. The
exploitation of dead coral in the tidal areas to generate
raw materials for the cement production using dynamite (in
Khanh Hoa, Ninh Thuan) seriously damages the living
environment of many marine organisms and reduces the
capacity of erosion prevention in the coastal areas.
* Shifting cultivation and the encroachment of arable land
A number of ethnic minorities have practiced shifting
cultivation for generations. According to their practice,
the fields can be cultivated for some consecutive years then
abandoned for a few years as a fallow period to wait for
forest restoration before being subject again to the
slash-and-burn cultivation. This practice used to clear only
a small size of forests while it could help enrich the
species by providing habitats for new ones. Due to the
population growth, this practice is no longer stable and the
sequence of land use is gradually shortened with the
consequences of gradual deforestation. The immigration,
forest clearing for arable land or aquaculture, also
contributes to the gradual area reduction of the forest
ecosystems.
Shifting cultivation is also a reason for forest fire. Of
the remaining 9 million hectares of forests, 56% is fire
prone in the dry season. The forest areas being burned each
year are between 20,000 to 30,000 hectares, even 100,000
hectares in certain year. Deforestation resulted in a major
reduction in biodiversity.
* Water Pollution
Oil pollution is regarded as the worst disaster for the
marine environment. As a result of oil exploitation and sea
transport, the proportion of oil mixed with the coastal
water has often exceeded the permissible level of between
0.4 to 1.0 mg/l many times. Quang Ninh province also suffers
a serious problem of sedimentation on the coastal areas due
to coal and clay exploitation. Millions of tons of sand and
mud due to the dredging activities at the sea-ports (Hai
Phong dredges 3 - 5 tons per year) often cause the estuary
and coastal sedimentation which contain oil and toxic
substances, creating negative impacts on the coastal
ecosystems and marine organisms.
* The degradation of the coastal areas
The construction of coastal aquaculture ponds, land
reclamation from the sea to create fields for salt
production or for agricultural cultivation, human settlement
along the coastal areas often contributes to the reduction
of the tidal zones, the increase in the salinity, changes in
the sedimentation process, causing destruction to or serious
degradation of the tidal swamps. The large-scale
exploitation of sand and stones for construction and of
other mineral resources causes land erosion in the coastal
areas of the Southern Central Region and the reduction of
water resources, affecting the lower layer of the marine
ecosystems.
* The transition to the market economy
Changes towards the market economy mechanism have had strong
impact on the farmers. The farmers are now under pressure to
apply many new varieties and species in order to have the
produce yields that meet the current market demands. This
poses a great danger to the traditional varieties and plant
species which have long been suitable to grow in the local
climate and soils. They have the valuable phenotypes but may
be ignored by their failure, in a short- term perspective,
to meet the present market demands.
The present situation regarding the exploitation and
utilisation of species makes the biodiversity protection
task more urgent than ever before.
2. OBJECTIVES OF THE VIETNAM NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
2.1. The long-term objective of the Plan is to:
- protect the rich and unique biodiversity resources within
the sustainable development framework of Vietnam;
2.2. The immediate objectives of the plan are to:
* Protect the country's endemic ecosystems, the vulnerable
ecosystems which are now facing the danger of reduction or
destruction caused by human economic activities.
* Protect those biodiversity components which are now
subject to be over-exploited or ignored.
* Promote and identify the utilisation values of all
biodiversity components on the basis of sustainable
development of natural resources in order to serve the
country's economic targets.
3. MAIN CONTENTS OF THE ACTION PLAN
Biodiversity protection is a long-term task which needs to
be carried out by different 5 - year programmes. A number of
the following urgent actions should be included in specific
Plan:
3.1. Policies and legal issues
The Law on Environmental Protection passed by the National
Assembly provides the general guidance for the environmental
protection. However, many more by-law regulations and
supporting documents should be prepared in order to
strengthen the enforcement of the Law and other legal
documents.
Law enforcement is one of the pressing issues to which more
attention should be paid. This requires the strengthening of
technical and management capacity for the concerned
institutions, staff training is also needed for these
institutions. A number of laws and regulations should be
reformed while the introduction of economic instruments
based on the market mechanism as well as punitive actions
need to be studied and implemented.
The by-law regulations should deal with such issues as the
exploitation and sustainable use of natural resources, the
control of the trading in the rare species as well as the
unique bio- materials of Vietnam, pollution prevention and
control. These issues should be included also in the
regulations on environmental impact assessments.
The effective protection of biodiversity requires a
clarification, readjustment or strengthening of the
functions, and duties entrusted to the State management
organisations concerned as well as of the regulations on
those activities carried out by economic establishments that
have impacts on the environment. Therefore, priority should
be given to the sectoral review of the functions and duties
of the organisations which manage the protected areas.
3.2. Establishment and management of protected areas
3.2.1. Immediately establish and well manage the protected
areas with high biodiversity values. Planning and
enlargement of forest and forest land in 87 specialised
forests which have been identified. Primary priority should
be given to those protected areas of high biodiversity
values such as: Pu Mat (Nghe An Province); Vu Quang (Ha Tinh
Province), Hoang Lien Son (Lao Cai Province), Ba Be (Cao
Bang Province), Cat Ba (Hai Phong), Cuc Phuong (Ninh Binh
Province), Ke Go Lake (Ha Tinh Province), Bach Ma (Thua
Thien Hue Province), Nam Ca (Dac Lac Province), Chu Giang
Sinh (Dac Lac Province), Bi Dup (Lam Dong Province), Cat
Tien (Dong Nai Province).
Strengthen and develop the buffer zones surrounding the
protected areas, discourage intensive farming on sloping
land, gradually stop the shifting cultivation, stabilise the
life of the people and raise their awareness so that they
will voluntarily join the protection force.
3.2.2. Develop the planning and creation of a number of
important wetland areas in Ca Mau, or close to the Red River
delta, the bird colonies and the Tam Giang Lagoon, etc.
These areas are located outside the specialised forests but
close to human residence where the people have great demands
to exploit theses areas for such many different purposes as
aquaculture, coastal forests and waterway transportation,
etc. It is therefore necessary to pay special attention
right from the outset to the biodiversity protection of
these wetlands and to the prevention of contamination
sources, especially from the water and to the control of the
water over-drainage.
3.2.3. Build a number of protected areas for sea and inland
water bodies. As the sea areas with high biodiversity are
usually the ones that can provide high economic values,
priority should be given to the protection of those sea
areas that have highest biodiversity values.
3.2.4. Build gene banks of flora, micro-organisms and
domesticated animals. Supply genetic materials for
hybridising and selecting varieties to serve economic
purposes as well as to "ensure" the genetic sources in
nature. To enhance capacity of zoos which can serve as
places for sight-seeing, training and raising the general
awareness on the environment. These places are also useful
for scientific research, conservation of wildlife which are
endangered, and when conditions permit, these species should
be released back to the protected areas.
3.2.5. Organise integrated management of the coastal areas
within the framework of sustainable development. Many
activities in the coastal areas should be carried out in an
integrated manner, such as: developing protected forests,
mangrove forest exploitation, growing aquaculture, land
reclamation for farming, human settlement and coastal
industry. development, etc.
3.2.6. Enhance measures to protect agricultural
biodiversity, bring into full play the various forms of
"farming conservation"; encourage farmers to participate in
the common protection efforts; special attention should be
given to the conservation of popular traditional varieties
which have long been adapted to the local geography and
climate.
3.3. Awareness building
3 3.1. Utilise such mass media instruments as radio,
television, newspapers, posters, etc. to raise the public
awareness on biodiversity, encourage people to protect the
general benefits of biodiversity.
3.3.2. Provide necessary information through short
symposiums, study tours to biodiversity protection
institutions within and outside the country to help
management officers or policy-makers to have better
understanding and knowledge concerning the biodiversity
importance.
3.3.3. Carry out propaganda and dissemination of knowledge
and methods necessary for the rational use of endemic
natural resources for the ethnic communities so that they
can both exploit and protect theses resources. Encouragement
and technical support should be rendered to people so that
they can protect the traditional plant and animals for
medicines and transform gradually from their natural
exploitation methods to scientific ones by raising their
awareness of sustainable use of the natural resource values.
3.3.4. Prepare biodiversity education curriculum for the
school system which could be incorporated within the
biological programmes or the environmental education in
general.
3.4. Capacity building and staff training
3.4.1. Give priority to the training for officers who are
involved in the biodiversity management at all levels and
technical staff who are directly involved in enforcement. In
addition, training should also be given to the members of
mass organisations, associations and farming households who
participate in the protection of biodiversity.
3 4 2. Set up a national biodiversity database and a
biodiversity databank beneficial to the management and
research activities promote the international information
exchange concerning these issues.
3 4 3. Establish a system to monitor the changes in
biodiversity resources in order to timely provide necessary
information to the state management organisations.
3.5. Scientific research
Attention should be given to the following guidelines for
scientific and technological research:
3 5.1. Carry out research on technologies which can be
appropriately used in the rational exploitation and
sustainable utilisation of biodiversity resources. Give
priority to the scientific research on the exploitation
technology and the use of biodiversity components in
agriculture and pharmacy.
3 5.2. Carry out research on the criteria and standards to
evaluate the changes in biodiversity resources, using these
criteria and standards as the basis for the evaluation of
these resources values.
3.5.3. Study issues relating to bio-safety, ensuring the
safe reception and transfer of bio-technology.
3.5.4. Carry out research on and growing of precious and
rare sea organisms and forest animals that have high
economic values but are subject to over-exploitation and
facing the consequent danger of extinction.
3.5.5. Study biodiversity issues occurring in neighbouring
countries which have natural conditions similar to ours,
recognising that Vietnam and these countries have various
common demands in the protection of their mutual benefits as
well as exchange of technology.
3.6. Socio-economic issues
The crucial issue of the National Action Plan on
Biodiversity is to bring about the sustainable development
of the country, to examine and anticipate the interaction
between the Plan and the country's socio-economic conditions
in order to have appropriate adjustments. The plan must
create conditions for, and ensure the support of, the people
who live nearby the natural resources for their increased
benefits. Therefore, priority should be given to projects
which assist the people with the building of the buffer
zones, the application of advanced technological
achievements, upgrading of infrastructure, improvement of
the social welfare, so as to ensure the balanced income for
the people, thus preventing them from further encroachment
into the protected areas.
The socio-economic programmes managed by the line ministries
or branches and implemented in the areas adjacent to the
protected areas should be implemented in conformity with the
plan on biodiversity protection. The exploitation of Natural
resources must be carried out sustainability.
A number of new economic developments close to protected
areas or areas which have sensitive eco-systems will be are
subject to pay a lee for the environmental protection.
3.7. International cooperation
The fact that Vietnam has ratified the Convention on
Biodiversity creates a good basis for a broadened
international cooperation in this area. It is necessary to
appeal international organisations, foreign governments and
individuals, to provide practical technical training and
financial assistance for the step-by-step implementation of
this plan.
With regard to the neighbouring countries, for the mutual
interests of each country, it is necessary to strengthen
cooperation in the scientific research, exchange of
information and technology and to work together for the
protection and development of their biodiversity values.
4. ACTIVITIES NEEDED TO BE, CARRIED OUT IN THE PERIOD
l99C-2000
In the five-year plan from 1996-2000, based on the State
resources, efforts should be focused on the priority targets
in order to carry out the following actions:
4.1. Policies and legal issues: complete a system of by-law
regulations in order to create a legal framework for the
implementation of the Law on Environmental Protection and of
the Conventions relating to Biological Diversity:
4.1.1. Formulate regulations on the conservation,
utilisation, exploitation and exchange of genetic resources,
varieties and breeds with a view to:
* Manage rare and precious specious natural resources of the
country which have immediate and long-term practical
economic values.
* Protect the national sovereignty and act in conformity
with those international conventions which Vietnam has
ratified concerning these natural resources.
4.1.2. Coordinate all the existing laws and regulations on
the management, exploitation and utilisation, of biological
resources for whatever purposes with a view to:
* Identify the loop-holes and shortcomings of those
documents previously promulgated by different ministries or
branches.
* Reform and rectify these documents in order to make them
compatible with the new changes in the national economic
management mechanism and, at the same time, to ensure the
sustainable exploitation and utilisation of the biological
resources with a sustainable development approach.
4.1.3. Make public those less sustainable ecosystems in the
"sensitive" terrestrial and aquatic environmental areas and
promulgate corresponding protection regulations in order to
prevent the degradation or destruction of these ecosystems
as the result of adverse environmental impacts created by
industrial development.
4.2. Establishment and management of protected areas
4.2.1. Locate and enlarge the forest protected and land
areas in order to:
* Increase the size and acreage of each specialised forests
of the total 87 forests already approved by the Government.
* Legalise all land use documents concerning these areas.
4.2.2 Consolidate and establish the protected areas with
high biodiversity values which have been identified.
Priority for investment should be first given to these areas
because of their national and international high
biodiversity values. Along with the consolidation and
establishment of strictly protected areas, synchronised plan
should be worked out to develop the buffer zones so as to
stabilise the living conditions of the local inhabitants.
4.2.3 Carry out the selection, planning and establishment of
a number of important wetlands in the identified areas.
Special protection and priority should be given to these
areas as these areas are rich in biodiversity but very
sensitive to the environmental pollution and usually
associated with many economic activities.
4.2.4 Carry out the selection, planning and establishment of
a number of important marine reserves in the areas of Ha
Long Bay, the coast line from Khanh Hoa to Binh Thuan
Province, and in the Con Dao and Phu Quoc islands.
These areas are very rich in biodiversity, inhabited by many
marine species and directly interlinked with the protection
of the water resources and important fish grounds of the
country.
4.2.5. Consolidate and establish genetic conservation
centres for raising plants and animals, and micro-biological
organism aimed at protecting the precious and rare genetic
resources with high economic values and supplying genetic
materials for breeding.
4.2.6. Strengthen and upgrade the capacity for the zoos in
Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City in order to better use them as
facilities to educate people's consciousness of
environmental protection in general and biodiversity
conservation in particular. In addition, these zoos can also
be used as research centres to raise the rare and precious
animals which are facing the danger of natural extinction
and to release them back to their habitats when conditions
arise.
4.3. General awareness building
4.3.1. Keep the public constantly informed of the values of
biodiversity in order to enhance the population's awareness
of these values so that they will have better sense of
responsibility to protect the biodiversity resources.
4.3.2. Provide necessary information on biodiversity to
officials at all levels particularly officials at the local
levels in order to help them with better understanding of
the biodiversity values; at the same time these officials
should be assisted with information to make necessary
decisions concerning the protection of these natural
resources.
4.4. Capacity building and staff training
4.4.1. Organise short-term training courses, seminars within
and outside the country to strengthen the capacity and
professional expertise for the management and technical
staff at all levels and branches who are involved in the
biodiversity-related work.
4.4.2. Establish a national network of database on
biodiversity with a view to have a unified system of
database and information on biodiversity throughout the
country, creating favourable conditions for the general
capacity building.
4.5. Scientific research
4. 5.1. Conduct research and studies on technologies for the
sustainable exploitation and utilisation of biodiversity
components; priority will be given to those technologies
that could be used profitably in agriculture, medicines and
pharmacy aimed at better utilising the values of
biodiversity components and thus making practical
contributions to the achievement of the national
socio-economic targets.
4.5.2. Study the criteria and standards to assess the
changes of biodiversity components in order to develop a
long-term scientific basis for the protection, supervision
and assessment of the trends in biodiversity.
4.5.3. Study the issues relating to the safety of the
biodiversity values in the receipt and transfer of
technologies especially biotechnology.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The National Action Plan on Biological Diversity is worked
out to serve the long-term benefits of the country. It also
demonstrates to the world community our responsibility
towards the conservation of the common heritage of mankind.
All organisations, branches concerned are 0bliged to
implement this Action Plan.
Hanoi, 22 December 1995
Minister of Science, Technology and Environment
(signed)
DANG HUU
Zambezi Basin Wetlands Conservation and Resource Utilization Project
The Zambezi Basin Wetlands Conservation and Resource Utilization Project (ZBWCRUP) was mounted in reaction to recognition on the part of Southern African Development Community (SADC) member states that widespread deterioration of wetlands has occurred. Wetland values that are being eroded include both ecological and socio-economic components because wetlands form an important source of income generation at the local and national levels.
Below are the major achievements up to the year 2000.
Tangible conservation achievements
The first tangible signs of achievements in conservation were observed after two years of project implementation. Fifty-five communities in the pilot areas have adopted improved wetlands resource management practices including soil and water conservation, discontinuation of fishing during the breeding season, regulation of net mesh size, tree planting, rehabilitation of mangrove stands, establishment of river bank buffer zones, reduction of wildlife harvest, and attempts to control fire. A total of 18 resource management regimes were adopted, reflecting an understanding of the resource base. They include fisheries, forestry, raw materials for crafts, tourism, grass harvesting, fire management and wildlife. The understanding of the resource base was enhanced through publication of the economic valuation report, and all of these incorporate indigenous knowledge. Approximately 25 community-based institutions are functioning. They include pilot area committees, special interest committees to deal with issues such as natural resource management and land tenure, income generation clubs, women's groups, etc.
Previously, concerns had been expressed, at a number of levels, including at the Advisory Committee, that the project appeared to be skewed in the direction of social development. There had been suggestions that the project was reacting to community "wish lists" with little evidence of conservation measures being initiated to ensure sustainability of resource use (Beaudet and Hiscock 1999).
1 Community well being
Significant achievements were recorded in addressing community concerns, particularly in the areas of health, education, gender equity, income generation, and cultural aspects.
1.1 Health
In co-operation with local health authorities, health improvement programmes were implemented including enhanced clinic operations, establishment of drug revolving funds, epidemic control training, Traditional Birth Attendants (TBA), training and growth monitoring. Liaison continued with local health authorities to determine the most effective inputs to their requirements.
At the beginning of the project, there appeared to be hope that the Panel of Experts on Environmental Management of Vector Control (PEEM), consisting of experts from the World Health Organisation and other international agencies, would again become involved in the project. However, they failed to secure the requisite funding. A representative of PEEM visited the Project Manager twice and provided advice and written child health material for distribution.
In consultation with wetland communities and local health authorities, the project has improved the health of pilot areas through:
· Health facilities: Clinics, rural health centres, primary health care centres and traditional birth attendants' shelters were constructed or rehabilitated. In such instances, prior commitment was obtained from health authorities that they would provide staff and medical supplies in keeping with the country norms;
· Primary health care: Community health care workers were trained to provide a broad spectrum of health services in their own communities;
· Drug Revolving funds: Community drug revolving funds were established with two components; provision of the initial supply of drugs and training of community members to dispense them;
· Epidemic Control Training: Community health workers were trained in the control of epidemics such as cholera, bubonic plague and measles;
· Growth monitoring: Training has enabled mothers to recognise the symptoms and causes of malnutrition in their children and to implement corrective diets;
· Traditional Birth Attendants training and supplies: Safe motherhood services were provided by project-trained and equipped volunteer attendants;
· Water quality improvement. Installation of wells has provided safe drinking water resulting in reduction of water borne diseases.
The incidence of disease, as well as mortality rates, has been reduced. Specifically:
· Increased access to health facilities has reduced travel time for medical attention by up to several hours. This has caused wetlands residents to more readily seek the medical services they require;
· Drug Revolving funds have been instrumental in controlling illnesses, such as malaria, pneumonia, diarrhoea and worms;
· The epidemic control programme has reduced the spread of diseases such as cholera and bubonic plague and resultant deaths and has increased survival rates among those catching the diseases;
· Growth monitoring training has lessened the incidence of malnutrition and generally improved child health;
· Maternal and infant mortality were reduced by properly trained and equipped traditional birth attendants;
· Well construction has provided safe drinking water and thereby contributed significantly to the reduction of water borne diseases.
1.2 Education
The provision of education facilities was a high priority of communities in pilot areas in all field sub-projects. In consultation with the local education authorities, the project carried out both construction and rehabilitation of schools, teachers' houses, an office and a boarding house with significant community inputs in all cases. As in the case of health facilities, the project only undertook to provide or improve infrastructure when there was prior agreement from the education authorities that they would supply teachers and teaching materials. A total of 221 infrastructures were rehabilitated.
Some of the results of project support to community education were ease of attracting teachers, increased school enrolment (by about 1,300 students), higher level of attendance, commencement of schooling at an earlier age and improved learning rates. These achievements were, in turn, due to availability of teacher accommodation, reduced travel time for pupils and enhanced learning environments.
The project has addressed the education issue through:
· Construction of education infrastructure including classrooms, teachers' houses and boarding residences;
· Improving access to education by reducing distance to "in community" schools;
· Enabling younger children to begin their education at the normal school starting age;
· Improving the teaching and learning environment with more modern facilities;
· Promoting non-formal education through the use of drama, videos, radio, pamphlets, newspapers, etc.
Some of the long term effects are expected to be :
· Better understanding of wetland conservation issues by youth and by adults;
· New resource management regimes reflecting an understanding of wetlands values and sustainable use;
· communities are able to articulate wetland issues and to properly address them.
1.3 Gender equity
While the regional gender strategy and action plan was never finalised in a form that could be applied in the field, it did provide a basis for continuation of activities aimed at improving the status of women and enhancing their role in sustainable use of wetlands. Initiatives specifically benefiting women include production, transportation and sale of crafts such as baskets, pottery and embroidery, increasing agricultural incomes, participation in reforestation of degraded mangroves, fish processing and reduction of water fetching time through the installation of wells.
1.4 Cultural elements
In recognition of the cultural ties of wetland residents to their environment, cultural elements of community wellbeing were supported, including rehabilitation of the Barotse Royal Establishment Princes' flood plain residence, construction of traditional courts (kutas) and dissemination of indigenous knowledge to the younger generation.
1.5 Income enhancement
Twenty-seven community based enterprise development initiatives, half of them self-sustaining, were established; they include agriculture, fish processing, pottery, embroidery, weaving and other crafts, wood processing, commercialisation of use of boats, guinea fowl and goat rearing. We estimate that there are now approximately 510 emerging entrepreneurs at the community level in pilot areas with increased ability to take advantage of profits accruing from sustainable use of wetland resources. The proportion of agricultural products sold has been increased, with sub-project support to cash crops. The dynamic nature of most of these enterprises is illustrated by the fact that some crafts producers trained with project support are now able to export their products to the international market.
1.6 Transportation
Due to financial and time constraints, the project has not been able to contribute significantly to the resolution of transportation problems faced by wetlands communities. However, some actions were taken locally including canal clearing, improvement of "bush" roads and installation of bridges. Transportation of crafts such as pottery to market was supported.
1.7 Food Security
The project's first significant achievements in the area of food security occurred during 1998-1999 reporting period. Improved food production practices included soil and water conservation, irrigation, planting of multiple crops, (intercropping) use of higher yielding and early maturing maize seeds, planting of fruit trees, improvement of goat stock and introduction of guinea fowl.
The project has improved agricultural practices, through training and demonstration in the following fields :
· Inter-cropping of a mixture of vegetables as opposed to monoculture ;
· Higher yielding and early maturing crop varieties ;
· Combined traditional, non-traditional and organic agriculture practices ;
· Enhanced women's participation in environmentally sound agriculture ;
· Soil/water conservation and small scale irrigation ;
· Livestock management including inoculation against disease and introduction of larger varieties ;
· Diversification of crops and animals ;
· Agroforestry techniques such as propagating fruit trees, soil enhancement, and live fencing ;
· Protection of crops against wildlife.
The result was greater food security and improved ecosystem protection through:
· Enhanced role and reduced workload for women in agriculture ;
· Availability of a wider variety of crops for domestic consumption and sale ;
· Higher yields of maize and other crops ;
· Earlier availability of food for domestic consumption and market ;
· Increased number of harvests per year ;
· Reduced risk of drought and flood damage ;
· Reduced area required to produce a given volume of food ;
· Healthier and more productive livestock ;
· Maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility ;
· Improved income from sale of larger volume and greater diversity of crops and animals.
2 Public awareness, information and communication
2.1 Strategies
A project-wide awareness strategy was finalised in 1998-1999, and its implementation begun with the Communications Programme Officer taking the lead. A separate strategy was completed for the Zambezi Delta sub-project.
2.2 Implementation of public awareness strategies
The major challenge faced in increasing awareness of wetlands values and sustainable use is that, in order to reach all stakeholders, a wide variety of media must be used. In developed countries a large proportion of the population have access to television, radio and newspapers, whereas the ZBWCRUP stakeholders often have access to only one of these media and in some cases none of them is available. Accordingly, writers of both the Basin-wide strategy and the Zambezi Delta strategy were obliged to consider a wide variety of techniques ranging from television to plays and songs performed by project-sponsored community drama groups and choirs. In general, this approach proved to be successful, particularly where a variety of media could be employed. Radio proved to be a particularly potent medium because it reaches the widest range of audiences. One particular value of plays and songs is they are more likely to get the message out in terms of community concerns than are newspaper articles, and radio and television programmes. If the plays and songs are performed by groups such as conservation clubs, who have had "hands on" experience with the project, they tend to be that much more convincing.
Newspaper and television coverage was most effective where the writers, including the IUCN Communications Programme Officer, and producers, visited the site and obtained first hand information from representatives of affected communities.
Pursuit of an organisation in a position to produce a word class film on the project began to show signs of success near the end of the project with indications of interest by the National Geographic Society in producing a film on crocodiles and hippos in the Malawi sub-project.
In addition to the above noted media, considerable use was made of the project brochure, conservation calendars and periodic newsletters. Special events, such as hand-over ceremonies and a visit to the project by a country President greatly enhanced awareness of the project. As general statement, it can be said that there has been a significant increase in the level of awareness at the site and national levels. However, the degree to which awareness was improved at the regional level remains difficult to assess. It is anticipated that the website, hard copy fact sheets, graphic displays of project achievements, etc. to be produced as part of the Zambezi Basin Wetlands Information Management System, produced under a Canadian contract, will enhance awareness at the regional as well as national and site levels.
2.3 Photo inventory
A Wetlands Photo Inventory, including the catalogue/handbook/Users' Guide and electronic version on CD-ROMs, was produced under Canadian contract and delivered to ROSA in 1998. Extensive use was made of this collection, not only for project-specific awareness initiatives such as brochures, posters, calendars, leaflets, etc. but for other IUCN-sponsored communications including the annual report, State of the Environment reporting and conservation oriented displays.
3 Training
Training was implemented through both a formal project training plan and inclusion of a training component in most initiatives undertaken in the field. Emphasis was placed on grassroots level training associated with community wellbeing and management of wetlands resources for the following reasons. Firstly, as the project matured, it became progressively more apparent that it is at the community level that project efforts would produce the greatest and most lasting results. Secondly, there are a number of other initiatives, notably IUCN's Networking and Capacity Building Project, which are more suited than the ZBWCRUP to training of individuals who function at the national and regional levels.
3.1 Staff training
One main focus of staff training was on instruction in resource use conflict resolution for the Field Project Officers and Project Manager. This training included theoretical and academic elements of conflict resolution as well as addressing specific sub-project conflicts as case studies. Cases chosen were concession operator / community conflict in the Zambezi Delta, human / crocodile interactions in the Lower Shire, closure of fishing during the breeding season in the Barotse Flood Plain, and transboundary wildlife conflicts between Botswana and Namibia.
Other staff training focused on skill enhancement to enable project staff to function more effectively, as identified in annual appraisals, and included management computer software use, accounting, report writing and language instruction.
3.2 Stakeholder training
Stakeholder training permeated virtually every aspect of project implementation that required wetlands residents to carry out functions with which they were unfamiliar. Under the Community Well Being activity line, training was given in general community health, birth attendance, epidemic control, drug revolving fund management, marketing, crafts production, cooking, and typing. Under the Management of Wetlands Resources activity line, training was provided in fire management, fisheries, improved agriculture, mangrove restoration, soil and water conservation, agroforestry, livestock management and traditional leaders' roles in wetlands conservation.
A total of 79 training sessions were given. During the life of the project approximately 4,000 individuals were trained, 1,800 men, 1,600 women and 600 children. It might appear that there was insufficient focus on the training of children. However it should be borne in mind that strong emphasis was placed on children's needs in the areas of education and health as resources permitted.
Government technicians and community representatives were trained in resource inventory techniques to the degree possible, as part of the undertaking of project-wide or site-specific resource inventories.
4 Wetlands inventory, monitoring and evaluation
This activity line aimed at generating data bases on biophysical and socio-economic aspects of Zambezi Basin wetlands, at evaluating impacts to date of major developments and at establishing monitoring systems to provide information on future potential impacts and improvements.
Work performed falls into two main categories: project wide studies such as biodiversity, economic valuation and the information management system, and site specific inventories required to establish a better understanding of the resource and cultural base for individual sub-projects. The strongest focus for the latter category was in the Zambezi Delta, where little information had previously been collected.
4.1 Biodiversity
The biodiversity study, produced by the Zambezi Society, forms the central biological science focus for the project and adds significantly to the understanding of ecological aspects of Zambezi Basin wetlands. The Phase I report (Timberlake 1998) was published in February 1998, and has produced a good description of the biodiversity of Zambezi Basin wetlands and conservation requirements. The report was used in communication through the media to increase awareness, after being widely distributed both by IUCN and the Zambezi Society (91 copies have been distributed). Also, the biodiversity study has contributed to the development of Zambia's biodiversity strategy.
The Phase II report contains more in-depth field studies and reviews. Site-specific information was collected on a wide range of species groups with the assistance of individuals from local communities. This forged a valuable link between the project's scientific elements and community aspirations. Another noteworthy aspect of the biodiversity study is that, whereas much current effort in the discipline is being focused on the convening of conferences and promulgation of strategies, this study actually enhanced the knowledge of biodiversity. It thereby created a knowledge base against which the health of ecosystems that constitute the livelihood base for wetlands communities can be assessed and against which specific conservation measures can be initiated to ensure sustainability.
In summary, the project has produced an assessment of Zambezi Basin wetlands biodiversity consisting of:
· Biodiversity inventories and checklists;
· Ecological maps and vegetation maps;
· Detailed reviews of knowledge on selected wetland biological groups;
· Identification of indicator taxa;
· Identification of sites and species of concern and of biodiversity conservation priorities;
· Assessment of the impacts of human activity on wetlands biodiversity;
· Evaluation of the importance of the Zambezi Basin wetlands to biodiversity conservation;
· On - the - job training for local scientists and technicians;
· Collections of herbarium and museum specimens;
· A preliminary assignment of economic value to biodiversity.
The long-term result is a better positioning for the conservation of biological diversity in the Zambezi Basin wetlands due to:
· Establishment of status of biodiversity;
· Understanding of contribution of wetlands to overall biological diversity of the Zambezi Basin;
· Creation of a basis for monitoring changes in wetlands biodiversity;
· Articulation of human impacts on wetlands biological diversity;
· Development of rationale for identification and protection of special areas;
· Enhanced knowledge of the economic benefits of preserving biodiversity.
4.2 Economic valuation
One of the objectives of the project was to determine the wetlands values by articulating the goods and services they provide. The Namibia Department of Environment and Tourism (DET) produced the wetlands economic valuation study phase I (70 copies have been distributed) and phase II reports. A Canadian consultant was assigned to the study to monitor its progress and provide advice to enhance the product. Field work on the economic valuation project was begun in the Barotse Flood Plain during the 1998-99 fiscal year, with strong emphasis on involving communities in the articulation of the values of wetlands resources both locally and at the national level.
The authors of the study (Turpie et al. 1998) reviewed the methodology, assessed and contributed to resource economics capacity, made a preliminary assessment of the value of wetlands goods and services after visiting the field sub-projects. They also identified components of existing policies that affect the use of wetlands goods and services and incentives and disincentives to wetlands conservation contained in those policies.
One means of influencing decision-makers is through information on the values of the goods and services produced by wetlands and to give them tools. The economic valuation study (Turpie et al. 1998 and 1999) contributes to that, and it should encourage decision-makers to support both sustainable development and conservation of wetlands. Also, the development of wetlands policy frameworks suitable for application at the national and regional levels, a requirement of the economic valuation study, will help to define new policies that are in keeping with the need to conserve wetlands The project has already contributed to the production of a wetlands policy for Botswana.
In summary, the study produced an assessment of Zambezi Basin wetlands values and associated policy consisting of:
· Documentation of methods for determining the value of wetlands goods and services;
· An assessment of the economic values of goods and services provided by wetlands;
· An evaluation of specific components of wetlands ecosystems as economic producers;
· Data on the gender-specific use of wetlands resources and activities, including positive and negative values;
· Models of wetland resource use;
· Estimates of indirect use values associated with the major ecosystem services;
· An estimate of the non-use value of biodiversity;
· Identification of optimal policy scenarios for maximising economic value and gender equity;
· An analysis of the effects of alternative policies on economic values and conservation of wetlands.
· Wetlands policy frameworks suitable for application at the national and regional.
The main result is a better understanding of the economic values of wetlands and associated policies including:
· The most appropriate methods for determining values of wetland goods and services;
· The values of wetlands goods and services in monetary terms;
· Relative importance of components of wetlands ecosystems as economic producers;
· Who has access to and uses wetlands resources including gender aspects;
· Models of wetland resource use;
· The value put on biodiversity by the public;
· Policy aspects of maximising long term economic value of wetlands and gender equity;
· Wetlands policy frameworks suitable for application at the national and regional levels.
4.3 Information management system
The Zambezi Wetland Information Management System (ZWIMS) aims to hold and make available information on the biophysical and socio-economic aspects of Zambezi Basin wetlands, in the form of reports, maps, fact sheets, photos, video and sound clips and other data, all related to an expandable Geographic Information System which maps the Basin and the four sub-project areas. The information in ZWIMS is accessible on CD-ROM, and is designed to be accessed on an interactive website with links to related organisations and further data sources. Fieldwork involved visits by the Canadian consultants to ROSA and to all field sub-projects and other national and non-governmental sources of information in the region. Base mapping and data base and website design were undertaken in Canada, and included support to the biodiversity study. In addition to presenting empirical information, the ZWIMS shows what the ZBWCRUP project has achieved with reference to the revised logical framework analyses, using specified indicators.
The ZWIMS allows optimal use to be made of the results of this complex multinational project by rendering them available to a wide variety of stakeholders at all levels. The website, soon to be established on a server and publicly accessible, will make the information available for viewing, downloading, and linking to the websites of IUCN, CIDA and other interested agencies.
4.4 Site-specific studies and assessments
Apart from studies with a basin wide focus, a number of resource inventories and socio-economic studies were carried out at the sub-project level. These included, among others, assessments of existing socio-economic information, health status, food security, energy supplies, education requirements, fisheries, forests, wildlife, and geomorphologic processes.
5 Management of wetlands resources
5.1 Natural resource management plans and regulations
Significant progress was made toward community recognition of the necessity of natural resource management plans and regulations as an adjunct to initiatives designed to directly enhance community wellbeing. More than 50 communities have adopted improved wetlands resource management practices.
Bylaws to control the use of natural resources were formulated and passed by traditional authorities. In general, at this point the bylaws are effective in controlling the utilisation and management of natural resources by local people. However, until they have been officially gazetted, it is not practical to impose them on individuals that do not come under the jurisdiction of the traditional authorities of the area in question.
A draft crocodile management plan for the Lower Shire was presented to the Director of the Malawi Department of National Parks and Wildlife and accepted in principle. Work then began on consultation with communities to obtain their input to the plan, which presents issues and actions in the areas of crocodile monitoring and trends, human population trends and impacts, crocodile attacks on humans, human / crocodile interactions other than attacks on humans, crocodile population management, crocodile habitat management and community participation. Community consultation was incomplete at the end of the reporting period.
5.2 Demonstrations
Considerable emphasis was placed on implementing demonstrations of sustainable wetlands utilisation practices. In each of these initiatives care was taken to ensure gender equity and particularly to involve women.
The inception mission report stated already that "….in order to be in a creditable position relative to articulation and communication of the value and importance of wetlands, the project will need to become involved in some "hands on" operational aspects of wetlands conservation and utilisation including inventory and demonstration projects." Further, it was recognised, particularly during the production of the public awareness strategies, that people learn best by doing and by observing the results of their own efforts and those of others.
There are approximately 55 communities with demonstration projects. Examples of demonstrations of sustainable use undertaken are numerous, including :
· improved agricultural practices such as use of higher yielding and faster maturing crops;
· soil and water conservation;
· re-utilisation of rice growing areas;
· establishment of tree nurseries for reforestation and aforestation;
· agroforestry practices that increase the use of fruit trees and improve soil fertility;
· mangrove conservation and rehabilitation;
· establishment of buffer zones to prevent wildlife predation on crops;
· optimal use of local clays and other raw materials for craft production;
· fisheries management including seasonal closures;
· use of appropriate mesh sizes and processing techniques in fisheries;
· use of guinea fowl and improved goat stock to increase food security and generate profits.
5.3 Transboundary resource management
As reported above, a transboundary workshop was held in Kasane, Botswana, in June 1998. As follow up, project-sponsored meetings on fire control were held in both Botswana and Namibia, and there is now greater transboundary co-operation on the control of fires. There were also signs of conflict reduction in that there appears to be some amelioration of the normal blaming the other side for starting uncontrolled fires. Planning began on a more detailed workshop, also involving Zambia, on transboundary management of fisheries.
This text was prepared by Therese Baudet (IUCN - CA), Eric Hiscock and Excellent Hachileka (IUCN-ROSA) as part of the final report. The project is now in its second phase.
Below are the major achievements up to the year 2000.
Tangible conservation achievements
The first tangible signs of achievements in conservation were observed after two years of project implementation. Fifty-five communities in the pilot areas have adopted improved wetlands resource management practices including soil and water conservation, discontinuation of fishing during the breeding season, regulation of net mesh size, tree planting, rehabilitation of mangrove stands, establishment of river bank buffer zones, reduction of wildlife harvest, and attempts to control fire. A total of 18 resource management regimes were adopted, reflecting an understanding of the resource base. They include fisheries, forestry, raw materials for crafts, tourism, grass harvesting, fire management and wildlife. The understanding of the resource base was enhanced through publication of the economic valuation report, and all of these incorporate indigenous knowledge. Approximately 25 community-based institutions are functioning. They include pilot area committees, special interest committees to deal with issues such as natural resource management and land tenure, income generation clubs, women's groups, etc.
Previously, concerns had been expressed, at a number of levels, including at the Advisory Committee, that the project appeared to be skewed in the direction of social development. There had been suggestions that the project was reacting to community "wish lists" with little evidence of conservation measures being initiated to ensure sustainability of resource use (Beaudet and Hiscock 1999).
1 Community well being
Significant achievements were recorded in addressing community concerns, particularly in the areas of health, education, gender equity, income generation, and cultural aspects.
1.1 Health
In co-operation with local health authorities, health improvement programmes were implemented including enhanced clinic operations, establishment of drug revolving funds, epidemic control training, Traditional Birth Attendants (TBA), training and growth monitoring. Liaison continued with local health authorities to determine the most effective inputs to their requirements.
At the beginning of the project, there appeared to be hope that the Panel of Experts on Environmental Management of Vector Control (PEEM), consisting of experts from the World Health Organisation and other international agencies, would again become involved in the project. However, they failed to secure the requisite funding. A representative of PEEM visited the Project Manager twice and provided advice and written child health material for distribution.
In consultation with wetland communities and local health authorities, the project has improved the health of pilot areas through:
· Health facilities: Clinics, rural health centres, primary health care centres and traditional birth attendants' shelters were constructed or rehabilitated. In such instances, prior commitment was obtained from health authorities that they would provide staff and medical supplies in keeping with the country norms;
· Primary health care: Community health care workers were trained to provide a broad spectrum of health services in their own communities;
· Drug Revolving funds: Community drug revolving funds were established with two components; provision of the initial supply of drugs and training of community members to dispense them;
· Epidemic Control Training: Community health workers were trained in the control of epidemics such as cholera, bubonic plague and measles;
· Growth monitoring: Training has enabled mothers to recognise the symptoms and causes of malnutrition in their children and to implement corrective diets;
· Traditional Birth Attendants training and supplies: Safe motherhood services were provided by project-trained and equipped volunteer attendants;
· Water quality improvement. Installation of wells has provided safe drinking water resulting in reduction of water borne diseases.
The incidence of disease, as well as mortality rates, has been reduced. Specifically:
· Increased access to health facilities has reduced travel time for medical attention by up to several hours. This has caused wetlands residents to more readily seek the medical services they require;
· Drug Revolving funds have been instrumental in controlling illnesses, such as malaria, pneumonia, diarrhoea and worms;
· The epidemic control programme has reduced the spread of diseases such as cholera and bubonic plague and resultant deaths and has increased survival rates among those catching the diseases;
· Growth monitoring training has lessened the incidence of malnutrition and generally improved child health;
· Maternal and infant mortality were reduced by properly trained and equipped traditional birth attendants;
· Well construction has provided safe drinking water and thereby contributed significantly to the reduction of water borne diseases.
1.2 Education
The provision of education facilities was a high priority of communities in pilot areas in all field sub-projects. In consultation with the local education authorities, the project carried out both construction and rehabilitation of schools, teachers' houses, an office and a boarding house with significant community inputs in all cases. As in the case of health facilities, the project only undertook to provide or improve infrastructure when there was prior agreement from the education authorities that they would supply teachers and teaching materials. A total of 221 infrastructures were rehabilitated.
Some of the results of project support to community education were ease of attracting teachers, increased school enrolment (by about 1,300 students), higher level of attendance, commencement of schooling at an earlier age and improved learning rates. These achievements were, in turn, due to availability of teacher accommodation, reduced travel time for pupils and enhanced learning environments.
The project has addressed the education issue through:
· Construction of education infrastructure including classrooms, teachers' houses and boarding residences;
· Improving access to education by reducing distance to "in community" schools;
· Enabling younger children to begin their education at the normal school starting age;
· Improving the teaching and learning environment with more modern facilities;
· Promoting non-formal education through the use of drama, videos, radio, pamphlets, newspapers, etc.
Some of the long term effects are expected to be :
· Better understanding of wetland conservation issues by youth and by adults;
· New resource management regimes reflecting an understanding of wetlands values and sustainable use;
· communities are able to articulate wetland issues and to properly address them.
1.3 Gender equity
While the regional gender strategy and action plan was never finalised in a form that could be applied in the field, it did provide a basis for continuation of activities aimed at improving the status of women and enhancing their role in sustainable use of wetlands. Initiatives specifically benefiting women include production, transportation and sale of crafts such as baskets, pottery and embroidery, increasing agricultural incomes, participation in reforestation of degraded mangroves, fish processing and reduction of water fetching time through the installation of wells.
1.4 Cultural elements
In recognition of the cultural ties of wetland residents to their environment, cultural elements of community wellbeing were supported, including rehabilitation of the Barotse Royal Establishment Princes' flood plain residence, construction of traditional courts (kutas) and dissemination of indigenous knowledge to the younger generation.
1.5 Income enhancement
Twenty-seven community based enterprise development initiatives, half of them self-sustaining, were established; they include agriculture, fish processing, pottery, embroidery, weaving and other crafts, wood processing, commercialisation of use of boats, guinea fowl and goat rearing. We estimate that there are now approximately 510 emerging entrepreneurs at the community level in pilot areas with increased ability to take advantage of profits accruing from sustainable use of wetland resources. The proportion of agricultural products sold has been increased, with sub-project support to cash crops. The dynamic nature of most of these enterprises is illustrated by the fact that some crafts producers trained with project support are now able to export their products to the international market.
1.6 Transportation
Due to financial and time constraints, the project has not been able to contribute significantly to the resolution of transportation problems faced by wetlands communities. However, some actions were taken locally including canal clearing, improvement of "bush" roads and installation of bridges. Transportation of crafts such as pottery to market was supported.
1.7 Food Security
The project's first significant achievements in the area of food security occurred during 1998-1999 reporting period. Improved food production practices included soil and water conservation, irrigation, planting of multiple crops, (intercropping) use of higher yielding and early maturing maize seeds, planting of fruit trees, improvement of goat stock and introduction of guinea fowl.
The project has improved agricultural practices, through training and demonstration in the following fields :
· Inter-cropping of a mixture of vegetables as opposed to monoculture ;
· Higher yielding and early maturing crop varieties ;
· Combined traditional, non-traditional and organic agriculture practices ;
· Enhanced women's participation in environmentally sound agriculture ;
· Soil/water conservation and small scale irrigation ;
· Livestock management including inoculation against disease and introduction of larger varieties ;
· Diversification of crops and animals ;
· Agroforestry techniques such as propagating fruit trees, soil enhancement, and live fencing ;
· Protection of crops against wildlife.
The result was greater food security and improved ecosystem protection through:
· Enhanced role and reduced workload for women in agriculture ;
· Availability of a wider variety of crops for domestic consumption and sale ;
· Higher yields of maize and other crops ;
· Earlier availability of food for domestic consumption and market ;
· Increased number of harvests per year ;
· Reduced risk of drought and flood damage ;
· Reduced area required to produce a given volume of food ;
· Healthier and more productive livestock ;
· Maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility ;
· Improved income from sale of larger volume and greater diversity of crops and animals.
2 Public awareness, information and communication
2.1 Strategies
A project-wide awareness strategy was finalised in 1998-1999, and its implementation begun with the Communications Programme Officer taking the lead. A separate strategy was completed for the Zambezi Delta sub-project.
2.2 Implementation of public awareness strategies
The major challenge faced in increasing awareness of wetlands values and sustainable use is that, in order to reach all stakeholders, a wide variety of media must be used. In developed countries a large proportion of the population have access to television, radio and newspapers, whereas the ZBWCRUP stakeholders often have access to only one of these media and in some cases none of them is available. Accordingly, writers of both the Basin-wide strategy and the Zambezi Delta strategy were obliged to consider a wide variety of techniques ranging from television to plays and songs performed by project-sponsored community drama groups and choirs. In general, this approach proved to be successful, particularly where a variety of media could be employed. Radio proved to be a particularly potent medium because it reaches the widest range of audiences. One particular value of plays and songs is they are more likely to get the message out in terms of community concerns than are newspaper articles, and radio and television programmes. If the plays and songs are performed by groups such as conservation clubs, who have had "hands on" experience with the project, they tend to be that much more convincing.
Newspaper and television coverage was most effective where the writers, including the IUCN Communications Programme Officer, and producers, visited the site and obtained first hand information from representatives of affected communities.
Pursuit of an organisation in a position to produce a word class film on the project began to show signs of success near the end of the project with indications of interest by the National Geographic Society in producing a film on crocodiles and hippos in the Malawi sub-project.
In addition to the above noted media, considerable use was made of the project brochure, conservation calendars and periodic newsletters. Special events, such as hand-over ceremonies and a visit to the project by a country President greatly enhanced awareness of the project. As general statement, it can be said that there has been a significant increase in the level of awareness at the site and national levels. However, the degree to which awareness was improved at the regional level remains difficult to assess. It is anticipated that the website, hard copy fact sheets, graphic displays of project achievements, etc. to be produced as part of the Zambezi Basin Wetlands Information Management System, produced under a Canadian contract, will enhance awareness at the regional as well as national and site levels.
2.3 Photo inventory
A Wetlands Photo Inventory, including the catalogue/handbook/Users' Guide and electronic version on CD-ROMs, was produced under Canadian contract and delivered to ROSA in 1998. Extensive use was made of this collection, not only for project-specific awareness initiatives such as brochures, posters, calendars, leaflets, etc. but for other IUCN-sponsored communications including the annual report, State of the Environment reporting and conservation oriented displays.
3 Training
Training was implemented through both a formal project training plan and inclusion of a training component in most initiatives undertaken in the field. Emphasis was placed on grassroots level training associated with community wellbeing and management of wetlands resources for the following reasons. Firstly, as the project matured, it became progressively more apparent that it is at the community level that project efforts would produce the greatest and most lasting results. Secondly, there are a number of other initiatives, notably IUCN's Networking and Capacity Building Project, which are more suited than the ZBWCRUP to training of individuals who function at the national and regional levels.
3.1 Staff training
One main focus of staff training was on instruction in resource use conflict resolution for the Field Project Officers and Project Manager. This training included theoretical and academic elements of conflict resolution as well as addressing specific sub-project conflicts as case studies. Cases chosen were concession operator / community conflict in the Zambezi Delta, human / crocodile interactions in the Lower Shire, closure of fishing during the breeding season in the Barotse Flood Plain, and transboundary wildlife conflicts between Botswana and Namibia.
Other staff training focused on skill enhancement to enable project staff to function more effectively, as identified in annual appraisals, and included management computer software use, accounting, report writing and language instruction.
3.2 Stakeholder training
Stakeholder training permeated virtually every aspect of project implementation that required wetlands residents to carry out functions with which they were unfamiliar. Under the Community Well Being activity line, training was given in general community health, birth attendance, epidemic control, drug revolving fund management, marketing, crafts production, cooking, and typing. Under the Management of Wetlands Resources activity line, training was provided in fire management, fisheries, improved agriculture, mangrove restoration, soil and water conservation, agroforestry, livestock management and traditional leaders' roles in wetlands conservation.
A total of 79 training sessions were given. During the life of the project approximately 4,000 individuals were trained, 1,800 men, 1,600 women and 600 children. It might appear that there was insufficient focus on the training of children. However it should be borne in mind that strong emphasis was placed on children's needs in the areas of education and health as resources permitted.
Government technicians and community representatives were trained in resource inventory techniques to the degree possible, as part of the undertaking of project-wide or site-specific resource inventories.
4 Wetlands inventory, monitoring and evaluation
This activity line aimed at generating data bases on biophysical and socio-economic aspects of Zambezi Basin wetlands, at evaluating impacts to date of major developments and at establishing monitoring systems to provide information on future potential impacts and improvements.
Work performed falls into two main categories: project wide studies such as biodiversity, economic valuation and the information management system, and site specific inventories required to establish a better understanding of the resource and cultural base for individual sub-projects. The strongest focus for the latter category was in the Zambezi Delta, where little information had previously been collected.
4.1 Biodiversity
The biodiversity study, produced by the Zambezi Society, forms the central biological science focus for the project and adds significantly to the understanding of ecological aspects of Zambezi Basin wetlands. The Phase I report (Timberlake 1998) was published in February 1998, and has produced a good description of the biodiversity of Zambezi Basin wetlands and conservation requirements. The report was used in communication through the media to increase awareness, after being widely distributed both by IUCN and the Zambezi Society (91 copies have been distributed). Also, the biodiversity study has contributed to the development of Zambia's biodiversity strategy.
The Phase II report contains more in-depth field studies and reviews. Site-specific information was collected on a wide range of species groups with the assistance of individuals from local communities. This forged a valuable link between the project's scientific elements and community aspirations. Another noteworthy aspect of the biodiversity study is that, whereas much current effort in the discipline is being focused on the convening of conferences and promulgation of strategies, this study actually enhanced the knowledge of biodiversity. It thereby created a knowledge base against which the health of ecosystems that constitute the livelihood base for wetlands communities can be assessed and against which specific conservation measures can be initiated to ensure sustainability.
In summary, the project has produced an assessment of Zambezi Basin wetlands biodiversity consisting of:
· Biodiversity inventories and checklists;
· Ecological maps and vegetation maps;
· Detailed reviews of knowledge on selected wetland biological groups;
· Identification of indicator taxa;
· Identification of sites and species of concern and of biodiversity conservation priorities;
· Assessment of the impacts of human activity on wetlands biodiversity;
· Evaluation of the importance of the Zambezi Basin wetlands to biodiversity conservation;
· On - the - job training for local scientists and technicians;
· Collections of herbarium and museum specimens;
· A preliminary assignment of economic value to biodiversity.
The long-term result is a better positioning for the conservation of biological diversity in the Zambezi Basin wetlands due to:
· Establishment of status of biodiversity;
· Understanding of contribution of wetlands to overall biological diversity of the Zambezi Basin;
· Creation of a basis for monitoring changes in wetlands biodiversity;
· Articulation of human impacts on wetlands biological diversity;
· Development of rationale for identification and protection of special areas;
· Enhanced knowledge of the economic benefits of preserving biodiversity.
4.2 Economic valuation
One of the objectives of the project was to determine the wetlands values by articulating the goods and services they provide. The Namibia Department of Environment and Tourism (DET) produced the wetlands economic valuation study phase I (70 copies have been distributed) and phase II reports. A Canadian consultant was assigned to the study to monitor its progress and provide advice to enhance the product. Field work on the economic valuation project was begun in the Barotse Flood Plain during the 1998-99 fiscal year, with strong emphasis on involving communities in the articulation of the values of wetlands resources both locally and at the national level.
The authors of the study (Turpie et al. 1998) reviewed the methodology, assessed and contributed to resource economics capacity, made a preliminary assessment of the value of wetlands goods and services after visiting the field sub-projects. They also identified components of existing policies that affect the use of wetlands goods and services and incentives and disincentives to wetlands conservation contained in those policies.
One means of influencing decision-makers is through information on the values of the goods and services produced by wetlands and to give them tools. The economic valuation study (Turpie et al. 1998 and 1999) contributes to that, and it should encourage decision-makers to support both sustainable development and conservation of wetlands. Also, the development of wetlands policy frameworks suitable for application at the national and regional levels, a requirement of the economic valuation study, will help to define new policies that are in keeping with the need to conserve wetlands The project has already contributed to the production of a wetlands policy for Botswana.
In summary, the study produced an assessment of Zambezi Basin wetlands values and associated policy consisting of:
· Documentation of methods for determining the value of wetlands goods and services;
· An assessment of the economic values of goods and services provided by wetlands;
· An evaluation of specific components of wetlands ecosystems as economic producers;
· Data on the gender-specific use of wetlands resources and activities, including positive and negative values;
· Models of wetland resource use;
· Estimates of indirect use values associated with the major ecosystem services;
· An estimate of the non-use value of biodiversity;
· Identification of optimal policy scenarios for maximising economic value and gender equity;
· An analysis of the effects of alternative policies on economic values and conservation of wetlands.
· Wetlands policy frameworks suitable for application at the national and regional.
The main result is a better understanding of the economic values of wetlands and associated policies including:
· The most appropriate methods for determining values of wetland goods and services;
· The values of wetlands goods and services in monetary terms;
· Relative importance of components of wetlands ecosystems as economic producers;
· Who has access to and uses wetlands resources including gender aspects;
· Models of wetland resource use;
· The value put on biodiversity by the public;
· Policy aspects of maximising long term economic value of wetlands and gender equity;
· Wetlands policy frameworks suitable for application at the national and regional levels.
4.3 Information management system
The Zambezi Wetland Information Management System (ZWIMS) aims to hold and make available information on the biophysical and socio-economic aspects of Zambezi Basin wetlands, in the form of reports, maps, fact sheets, photos, video and sound clips and other data, all related to an expandable Geographic Information System which maps the Basin and the four sub-project areas. The information in ZWIMS is accessible on CD-ROM, and is designed to be accessed on an interactive website with links to related organisations and further data sources. Fieldwork involved visits by the Canadian consultants to ROSA and to all field sub-projects and other national and non-governmental sources of information in the region. Base mapping and data base and website design were undertaken in Canada, and included support to the biodiversity study. In addition to presenting empirical information, the ZWIMS shows what the ZBWCRUP project has achieved with reference to the revised logical framework analyses, using specified indicators.
The ZWIMS allows optimal use to be made of the results of this complex multinational project by rendering them available to a wide variety of stakeholders at all levels. The website, soon to be established on a server and publicly accessible, will make the information available for viewing, downloading, and linking to the websites of IUCN, CIDA and other interested agencies.
4.4 Site-specific studies and assessments
Apart from studies with a basin wide focus, a number of resource inventories and socio-economic studies were carried out at the sub-project level. These included, among others, assessments of existing socio-economic information, health status, food security, energy supplies, education requirements, fisheries, forests, wildlife, and geomorphologic processes.
5 Management of wetlands resources
5.1 Natural resource management plans and regulations
Significant progress was made toward community recognition of the necessity of natural resource management plans and regulations as an adjunct to initiatives designed to directly enhance community wellbeing. More than 50 communities have adopted improved wetlands resource management practices.
Bylaws to control the use of natural resources were formulated and passed by traditional authorities. In general, at this point the bylaws are effective in controlling the utilisation and management of natural resources by local people. However, until they have been officially gazetted, it is not practical to impose them on individuals that do not come under the jurisdiction of the traditional authorities of the area in question.
A draft crocodile management plan for the Lower Shire was presented to the Director of the Malawi Department of National Parks and Wildlife and accepted in principle. Work then began on consultation with communities to obtain their input to the plan, which presents issues and actions in the areas of crocodile monitoring and trends, human population trends and impacts, crocodile attacks on humans, human / crocodile interactions other than attacks on humans, crocodile population management, crocodile habitat management and community participation. Community consultation was incomplete at the end of the reporting period.
5.2 Demonstrations
Considerable emphasis was placed on implementing demonstrations of sustainable wetlands utilisation practices. In each of these initiatives care was taken to ensure gender equity and particularly to involve women.
The inception mission report stated already that "….in order to be in a creditable position relative to articulation and communication of the value and importance of wetlands, the project will need to become involved in some "hands on" operational aspects of wetlands conservation and utilisation including inventory and demonstration projects." Further, it was recognised, particularly during the production of the public awareness strategies, that people learn best by doing and by observing the results of their own efforts and those of others.
There are approximately 55 communities with demonstration projects. Examples of demonstrations of sustainable use undertaken are numerous, including :
· improved agricultural practices such as use of higher yielding and faster maturing crops;
· soil and water conservation;
· re-utilisation of rice growing areas;
· establishment of tree nurseries for reforestation and aforestation;
· agroforestry practices that increase the use of fruit trees and improve soil fertility;
· mangrove conservation and rehabilitation;
· establishment of buffer zones to prevent wildlife predation on crops;
· optimal use of local clays and other raw materials for craft production;
· fisheries management including seasonal closures;
· use of appropriate mesh sizes and processing techniques in fisheries;
· use of guinea fowl and improved goat stock to increase food security and generate profits.
5.3 Transboundary resource management
As reported above, a transboundary workshop was held in Kasane, Botswana, in June 1998. As follow up, project-sponsored meetings on fire control were held in both Botswana and Namibia, and there is now greater transboundary co-operation on the control of fires. There were also signs of conflict reduction in that there appears to be some amelioration of the normal blaming the other side for starting uncontrolled fires. Planning began on a more detailed workshop, also involving Zambia, on transboundary management of fisheries.
This text was prepared by Therese Baudet (IUCN - CA), Eric Hiscock and Excellent Hachileka (IUCN-ROSA) as part of the final report. The project is now in its second phase.
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